PHYSIOGNOMY ties of the mind, and of a distinct organ for each faculty, in and through which it exists and manifests itself. His system combines the old ideas of metaphysics, physiology, and phys- iognomy in the unitary circle of cause, means, and end. A most valuable contribution to physiognomy, contemporary with that of Gall, is Johann Gottfried Schadow's " Groups of Mankind according to their Races and Periods " (1824), followed by his " National Physiogno- mies " (1835). In the chevalier de Gama Ma- chado's "Theory of Resemblances, a Philo- sophical Essay on the means of determining the natural Dispositions and Habits of Animals, according to the Analogies of their Forms and the Colors of their Coats " (1831), the author extends his comparisons to resemblances be- tween animals and plants, illustrating them by colored engravings. Sir Charles Bell (" Anat- omy of Expression," 1806 ; revised ed., 1844) says : " Attending merely to the evidence fur- nished by anatomical investigation, all that I shall venture to affirm is this, that a remark- able difference is to be found between the anatomy and range of expression in man and in animals; that in the former there seems to be a systematic provision for that mode of communication and that natural language which is to be read in the changes of the countenance; that there is no emotion in the mind which has not its appropriate signs; and that there are even muscles in the human face to which no other use can be assigned than to serve as the organs of this language ; that, on the other hand, there is in the lower animals no range of expression which is not fairly referable to a mere accessory to the voluntary or needful actions of the animal; and that this accessory expression does not ap- pear to be in any degree commensurate to the variety and extent of the animal's passions." Spurzheim's " Physiognomy in connection with Phrenology," containing numerous portraits of historical personages, proceeds upon the supposition that there are no exact signs of character in the face except what can be seen in the forehead. An idea of reciprocal rela- tion between the brain and the face in the manifestation of character led Dr. J. W. Red- field in 1840 to the observation of signs of character in the face corresponding with those of Gall and Spurzheim in the brain. Accord- ing to him, the lower jaw answers to the cere- bellum, and the rest of the face to the cere- brum ; the upper jaw bone to the posterior lobe, the cheek bone to the middle lobe, the nasal bones and the cartilage to the anterior lobe, the muscles about the mouth to the crown of the head, and those of the eye and forehead to the coronal region ; the difference between the brain and face in these corresponding di- visions being this : that the brain is the organ of the endurance or responsible impressibility of the mind, and that the face indicates its voluntariness or motive action, as shown in the predominant brain and impressibility of PHYSIOLOGY 483 the child, and the predominant face and pur- pose of the adult. Observing these relations between the brain and the face, he finds the " amativeness " of the cerebellum in the chin ; the " philoprogenitiveness " of the posterior lobe of the cerebrum in the first pair of upper incisors; the "cunning" of the middle lobe in the zygomatic arch of the cheek bone : the " comparison " of the anterior lobe in the end of the nose ; the " self-esteem " and " ap- probativeness " of the crown of the head in certain muscles of the upper lip ; the " con- scientiousness " and " benevolence " of the coronal region in certain muscles of the fore- head; and in like manner the other regions of the brain in corresponding faculties in the face. The facial signs of these are described in his " Outlines of a New System of Physi- ognomy" (1848), and in his plaster chart of the face (1850), published in S. R. Wells's work on " Physiognomy " in 1866. His first num- ber of " The Twelve Qualities of Mind " was published in 1850, and his " Comparative Physi- ognomy, or Resemblances between Men and Animals," in 1853. The discoveries of Dr. Duchenne are to a remarkable degree con- firmatory of Dr. Redfield's, published 14 years before. Darwin, in his "Expression of the Emotions in Men and Animals" (1872), ren- ders invaluable service to physiognomy by com- parisons of physiognomical expressions extend- ed to the most distantly related of the human family, and to the most familiar but least in- vestigated habits of the animals around us. PHYSIOLOGY (Gr. foaie, nature, and Uyog, discourse), strictly speaking, the doctrine of nature, embracing a knowledge of all the phys- ical and natural sciences, but now restricted to the science which treats of the vital phe- nomena of organized bodies, whether animal or vegetable. It does not include, as a rule, the phenomena of diseased action, which be- long to the separate department of pathology. General physiology treats of the vital phenom- ena as manifested in the organic kingdom as a whole, not as restricted to particular spe- cies ; as, for instance, the influence of light on animal and vegetable growth, the question of spontaneous and sexual generation, and the duration of life, as compared with the organ- ization and fecundity of the individual. Com- parative physiology shows the points of re- semblance and diversity in the vital actions of various groups and species more or less related to each other. Special physiology gives the details of the vital phenomena in particular species, such as the kind and quantity of food consumed, the number of young produced at a birth, the frequency and volume of the respira- tions, and the daily quantity and composition of the secreted and excreted fluids. Human physi- ology, as a special branch, is of course confined to the vital operations in the human species ; but it is evident that the facts relating to a particular species cannot be fully appreciated, nor even understood, without an acquaintance
