ROMAN CATHOLIC CHUECH 399 tian faith of its former inhabitants. The mis- sion of the monk Augustin, at the head of a band of his brethren, proved eminently suc- cessful. A see was founded at Canterbury, and the church was fully organized with close dependence on the chair of Peter. The 7th century was marked by the general diffusion of the faith in England, and the more per- fect organization of the English hierarchy. In the 8th century the Germans in great numbers were brought to the faith by the preaching of Boniface, called also Winifrid, an English missionary. He distinguished himself by his devoted attachment to the apostolic see, to which he made a solemn oath of duty. Vari- ous other missionaries, from Ireland especially, preached the faith about the same time with like success. It spread also toward the regions of the north, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Iceland. The scandals of the 10th century dis- figured the church, since unworthy men strug- gled to occupy the papal chair, or to place in it their relatives and adherents. The influ- ence of the emperors of the West had greatly declined, and some Italian nobles aspired to the pontificate. The intrusion of one or two youths and of several men of licentious habits disgraced the high office ; but after a time men of wisdom and piety were once more at the helm. Hildebrand attained to the pontificate in 1073, under the name of Gregory VII. With all his zeal and the authority of his office, he condemned the marriage of the cler- gy, which from toleration had become not unfrequent. He resisted the emperor Henry IV., who disposed of bishoprics, abbacies, and other high offices, for corrupt considerations. The inveterate character of these abuses and the imperial influence involved the pontiff in a long and fierce struggle, in which he seemed to succumb, dying in exile, but in reality over- came, leaving his successors to reap the fruits of his labors. The contest between the popes and the emperors continued, with intervals of rest, throughout the 12th and 13th centuries. Investitures were in the beginning of this pe- riod the chief subject of disputes, the popes resisting the claims of the emperors to invest bishops with the temporalities of their sees, by delivering to them the ring and crosier, chief symbols of episcopal authority. The oppor- tunity thus furnished for promoting unworthy men, courtiers, and favorites, determined the popes to vigorous resistance ; and although Paschal II. yielded for a moment to imperial violence, on the recovery of his liberty he re- tracted his consent, and humbled himself for his weakness. Innocent IV., in the middle of the 13th century, in the council of Lyons de- posed the emperor Frederick II. for various acts of simony, sacrilege, and tyranny, fol- lowing out the principles and the example of Gregory VII., who was the first to proceed to a similar deposition. The 14th century is remarkable for the removal of the papal chair to Avignon by Clement V., who, in the dis- 710 VOL. xiv. 26 tracted state of Rome, accepted the protec- tion of the French king. His example was followed by his successors for nearly 70 years, popularly styled by the Romans the Babylo- nish captivity. These French popes were bish- ops of Rome, which they governed by cardinal vicars acting in their name. The restoration of the chair to that city was followed by a schism, formed by French cardinals, who elect- ed Clement VII. in opposition to Urban VI., the pope residing at Rome. An attempt to terminate the rupture by setting aside both claimants resulted in the election of Alexan- der V. in the council of Pisa, and the three pretendants had their respective followers. At length, in the council of Constance, opened in 1414, Martin V. was chosen (1417) and ac- knowledged. The Greeks returned for a short time to the communion of the Roman see in the council of Florence held in 1439, but were drawn back by the persevering efforts of Mark, bishop of Ephesus, who resisted every influence employed by his colleagues and by the Greek emperor at the council. Constantinople a few years afterward fell under the power of the Turks, and the degradation alike of the eastern church and empire was consummated. Some popes of doubtful fame appeared in the de- cline of the 15th century, and one of acknowl- edged depravity at its close. The warlike ca- reer of Julius II. and the golden age of Leo X. were not calculated to restore the high charac- ter for austerity and zeal which the pontiffs had generally borne. The bold monk of Wit- tenberg appeared on occasion of the indul- gences which Leo offered to contributors to the grand fabric of St. Peter's. The rivalry of two religious orders added fuel to theologi- cal disputes, which on the part of Luther were marked by great boldness. He soon became a leader, and before he was fully aware he was the head of a sect inculcating principles sub- versive of the papal authority, and more suc- cessful than its predecessors in the 13th and 16th centuries, the sects of Albigenses and Hus- sites. A number of minor sects soon appeared, and a vast portion of the Catholic world, per- haps fully a third, was drawn away from obe- dience to the Roman see. Henry VIII., king of England, from a champion of the faith, became an enemy when his desires for a divorce were thwarted by Clement VII. The progress of the reformation was soon arrested by the zeal of many devoted men, founders of various re- ligious institutes, especially by the followers of Ignatius Loyola, whose labors caused a consid- erable reaction in favor of the church of Rome. These labors proved more effective than the more violent intervention of Charles V., Philip II., or the inquisition. The saintly Pius V., the stern Sixtus V., and others of less marked character, performed well the duties of their office. The religious wars of the 16th and 17th centuries ended with the triumph of Catholi- cism in France and a partial victory of Prot- estantism in the Netherlands and Germany.
