where Tilly was mortally wounded (April 5, 1032), and overrunning Bavaria threatened the Austrian dominions. He was checked by Wallenstein, who, after witnessing with se- cret joy the misfortunes of the Catholics, had been reinvested by Ferdinand with the supreme command. A new army had arisen at his call. He was joined by Maximilian and Aldringer with the forces of the league, and at Nuremberg the contending armies stood face to face till their ranks wasted away. Then carrying the war northward, they fought a desperate battle at Ltitzen, Nov. 6 (N. S., 16), L632. Gustavus fell, but the Swedes remained masters of the field. Pappenheim was among the slain. The death of the Swedish king, rhich was followed by that of the unfortunate Frederick V., spread consternation among the Protestants. But the Swedish chancellor Ox- stiern was equal to the occasion, while gen- erals like Bernhard of Weimar, Horn, Baner, id Torstenson, trained in the school of Gus- ivus, emulated his deeds. In 1633 Oxenstiern assembled the states of upper Germany at Heil- bronn, and was charged with the conduct of the war. Wallenstein, instead of securing to the emperor the advantages resulting from the death of his great adversary, surprised the world by his inactivity and mysterious con- duct. Ho led his army into Silesia, and con- fronted the Saxons and Swedes, but wasted the campaign in negotiations. With a devoted army at his command, ho was now bent ex- clusively on schemes of personal ambition. The suspicions of the court were aroused, and his treasonable designs ended in his assassina- tion in February, 1634. (See WALLENSTEIN.) The chief command was transferred to the emperor's son Ferdinand, who, seconded by Gallas and Piccolomini, advanced through Ba- varia. He was joined by Charles of Lorraine and a Spanish army, and on Sept. 6 the Prot- estant forces under Bernhard of Weimar and the Swedish general Horn were nearly anni- hilated at Nordlingen. This blow was fol- lowed by the defection of the elector of Sax- ony, who in May, 1635, entered into the peace of Prague with the emperor and turned- his arms against his recent allies. The accep- tance of the terms of this peace, which sac- rificed the Calvinists and Swedes, was to be made compulsory in all the states and enforced by an army of execution. Many of the Prot- estant states assented or were forced to yield, but Sweden, having no alternative short of re- linquishing her conquest, determined to con- tinue the struggle. Richelieu seized the op- portunity offered by the depression of the Protestant cause to promote the aggrandize- ment of France. He renewed the alliance with Sweden, declared war against Spain, and made Bernhard commander of his German allies. Baner began a series of brilliant cam- paigns, won a great victory over the armies of John George and Hatzfeld at Wittstock, Sept. 24, 1636, and carried the war into the THIRTY YEARS' WAR 711 Austrian territories. In the mean while France was attacked by the Spaniards, the imperial- ists, and Charles of Lorraine, and John de Weert spread terror to the gates of Paris. In February, 1637, the etnperor died, and was succeeded by his son Ferdinand III. The year 1638 opened with the successes of Bernhard, who in February captured John de Weert and other generals at Rheinfelden. In De- cember he took the important fortress of Brei- sach, and outwitted the French by appropria- ting his conquests. On his sudden death in 1639, France obtained control of his army, and pressed the war with vigor. Torstenson, a general unsurpassed in the celerity of his movements, who became the Swedish com- mander-in-chief on the death of Baner in 1641, shook the Austrian throne by repeated inva- sions, overthrew the archduke Leopold William and Piccolomini at Breitenfeld, Oct. 23, 1642, chastised Christian IV. for his designs against Sweden, completely defeated Gallas in 1644, won a great victory at Jankau in Bohemia, Feb. 24, 1645, taking Hatzfeld prisoner, and marched on Vienna. Rak6czy, prince of Tran- sylvania, advanced through Hungary, and Vien- na barely escaped the combined attack. On the side of the French, Gu6briant signalized him- self at Kempen in January, 1642, and the young duke d'Enghien (the future Conde) beat the Spaniards at Rocroy in 1643. But in Novem- ber, 1643, the French suffered a great defeat at Tuttlingen in Sf abia through the genius of John de Weert. Cond6 and Turenne retrieved this disgrace near Nordlingen in August, 1645, where Mercy, their eminent adversary, fell. Turenne and Wrangel, the successor of Tor- stenson, reduced Maximilian of Bavaria, the steadfast ally of Austria, to the last extremity. Konigsmark, another Swedish general, made himself master of a part of Prague in July, 1648, and the old town, on the opposite bank of the Moldau, had been attacked, though fruit- lessly, when on Nov. 8 the news came of the signing of the peace of Westphalia. This peace terminated a struggle which had converted Ger- many into a vast field of desolation and horror. As early as 1641 the preliminaries regard- ing the conduct of the negotiations had been arranged at Hamburg, and Munster and Osna- bruck in the circle of Westphalia assigned for the meeting of two separate congresses. At Munster the empire, France, Spain, and the Catholics generally were to negotiate, under the mediation of the pope ; and at Osnabriick the empire, Sweden, and the Protestants, under that of Denmark. But discussions on cere- monial and the varying fortunes of the war caused years to elapse before the congresses could assemble and enter upon earnest delib- erations. Denmark and the pope ultimately withdrew, and Venice became the mediator. Separate treaties were concluded at Osna- briick (Aug. 6, 1648) and Munster (Sept, 8), and on Oct. 24, 1648, the definitive signa- tures were annexed. Nearly every power of
