EDUCATION. 652 EDUCATION. Horace Mann, Montaigne, Pestalozzi, riato, Quin- tilian. Kabelais. Halicliius. Kousseau. lU'ibeil SpiMRcr, !Sturni. A further discussion of the principles of education, especially in relation to their application as an art, is given in the articles on Peu.gogy and on Psychology. The subject of educational method, treated primarily in the article on Ped.vgogy, is treated in some of its as- pects in the articles on Basedow; CoMEXirs; Fkobei. ; HERii.BT ; .J acotot; Lancaster, Joseph; Normal Schools; Oisject Teaching; and Pest.- Lozzi. The present condition of educational sys- tems and practices, tofjether with a sketch of their historical development since the Keforma- tion, is given in the article National EnrcATiON, Systems of. Special phases of the existing edu- cational systems are discussed under the titles: Agriciltiral Edication : Chavtaiqua : Col- lege: Colleges. American: Common Schools; CiRRiciLiM : Edication. Commercial: Evening Schools: Grammar Schools: tivMNAsiA and Re.lgymnasia : Indu.strial Schools; Infant Schools; Monitorial System; Normal Schools; Professional Education; Real- sciiuLEN : Technical Edvcation : Universities : and X'Nm;RsiTY Extension. The more impor- tant present educational tendencies and problems are considered under the topics Co-Education : Colu:giate Education for Women : Colleges, American: Education, Commercial; Curricu- lum; Ei.ectint; Courses; Grammar Schools: Kindergarten; Manual Training; Od.tect Teaching : Normal Schools : Parish Schools ; Pedagogy; and Schools. Certain aspects of these topics are also treated in the articles relating to the special universities, colleges and public schools, and in the sections on education in the articles Belgium. France, Germany, Great Britain, etc. Ty'pes of Education. The definitions given above indicate that education has two phases, more or less distinct. First, it is the physical and psychical development of the individual, sole- ly with reference to these activities within them- selves; and second, it is the process of adjusting the human being to his .social environment — to the ideals and customary practices of his fellows. So far as the process is concerned, these two phases are not distinguishable, hut are rather com- plementary; whereas, in reference to the concep- tion and the realized purpose, they are clearly dif- ferentiated and often are in conflict. Its history presents many aspects that find a common ex- planation in the varying emphasis placed upon the individual and social phases, together with the relative importance which the activities for supplying food, clothing, and shelter assume at any given stage of culture. Among primitive people education was largely practical, and cen- tred in the family group. It was essentially a training given the child, ordinarily by his parents, in the customary processes of supplying the needs of food, clothing, and shelter. (Consult Letour- neau's UevoUttion de l' id lira tion dans tes diierses races humuines, Paris. 1898.) These activities necessitated a variety of ceremonial observances relating to every interest in life in order to secure proper adjustment to the spirit world, omnipresent to the savage and the barbarian. As a priesthood developed priests had instruction in the preservation and explanation of tradition and ceremonies, as distinct, from the brnailer cere- monial education of all the people. Out of this esoteric training of the priesthood, and the at- tempt to construct cosmographies, grew in time philosophy, science, and literature, and the higlier types of education. Such tyi)es are best illus- trated by the Hindus, the Egyptians, and the .Jews. There developed, too, along with these early types of priestly instruction, a caste system of education for the masses of the people, that gave, in addition to the religious ceremonial edu- cation mentioned, a training in the practical af- fairs of life. In such a system the training was given by parent to child in the ]iarticular activ- ities to which he had been confined in the grow- ing division of labor. The caste system of edu- cation was highly develoix-d by the Egyptians and the Hindus, and, with the latter, at least, has per- sisted until recent times. While the caste organi- zation of society was never reached by the Jews, they did develop a system of industrial educa- tion akin to that of caste societies. The Chinese were the first of existing nations to develop a general system of literary education. Wliile it does not of course affect all the people, it is at least open to all, and does reach laige sections of the population. It is essentially literary, dealing primarily with the sacred literature, or- ganized as a preparation for the civil service, tested and controlled by a series of examinations. The successful competitors in these examinations become public ofiicials, juid the conduct of the Government is thus ])laced in the hands of those who are by the very process of selection most opposed to innovations and to jjrogress. This system, first organized in the time of Confucius, has undergone no radical change for the past thousand years. The recent trouble with the Western nations incident to the Boxer uprisings has given opportunity for the inlluences gradu- ally creeping in through contact with the West- erners to art'ect the examination system, and radical changes are now going on. The ancient Persians, the Greeks, and the Romans, developed a national type of education which at first was largely military. But its political aspect ex- panded with (ireek and Roman political life until individualism found full expression in an educa- tion both liberal and practical. Since that time the process has be«'n growing more scientific, synthetizing these several mixlcs. inlluenced in a varying degree by the ideals of Christian re- ligion. Historical Sketch of the Theory of Edu- cation. The Greeks were the first to work out a theory and practice of education, based upon scientific principles rather than upon religious beliefs and ecclesiastical ceremonies. The pur- pose of the early education, with both Athenian and Spartan, was preparation for the duties of citizenship, military, political, and religious. With tile .thenians their activities provided for intellectual and .-esthetic development, illustrated in the drama, religious ceremonial, the sym- posium, the choral performance, etc. From the middle of the seventh century B.C. there were at Athens elementary schools of a twofold charac- ter: one was the music school, which in time endiraced instruction in reading and writing; the other was the school for L'X'mnastics ami dancing, which for earlier years was called the palirstra, and. for the period of adolescence, the g>"inna- sium. The tr:iinin!i in gymnastics was not a di- rect military training, but was aimed to produce a beautiful, symmetrical, a^ile. ami somd body through various exercises, qhiefly running, jump-
