EDUCATION. 662 EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION. mercial instruction in tliis country was that of tile busini^ss rolleycs, whirli took their rise a little before the middle of the nineteenth century. Karly in the eighties the Wharton School of Fi- nance and Economy was established in the Uni- versity of Pennsylvania (q.v. ), and about the same time public high .schools began to give work similar to that of the earlier business-college in- struction. From this time the develoi)nient of commercial education has been rai)id. .t pres- ent the universities of Pennsylvania and Wiscon- sin otter a full four years' college of commerce course, on the completion of which a baccalaure- ate degree is conferred. Partial courses in com- merce are also otl'ered, either as free eleetives, or for the last year or two years of luidergraduatcf instruction, as at the universities of Illinois, Michigan, Chicago, California, Vermont, and at Dartmouth College. Of necessity this list is in- coini>lcte. since plans of study of a commercial nature are being introduced into colleges and universities in every part of the country. The growth of secondary schools of commerce has been more rapid than that of the colleges. Independent high schools devoted to commercial education are now in existence in New York, Philadelphia. Washington. Pittsburg, and other cities, while conunercial departments and elective commercial studies are well-nigh universal in high schools of the country. The private business col- leges are as well patronized as ever, and hundreds of tlunisands of young people are at present receiv- ing a commercial education in the United States. Associ.TiONs AXD .JotRX.vLs. For nearly ten years the Business Education Section has been conducted as one of the departments of the Na- tional Educational Association. Sessions are held annually in connection with National Asso- ciation meetings, and the proceedings are printed in the Association's re])ort. JIany other .associa- tions are active in this country, the best-known of them being the National Federation of Com- mercial Teachers and the Eastern Commercial Teachers' Association. In England there is the "Yorkshire Association for the Promotion of Commercial Education," and in German}' the "Deutscher Verband fiir das kaufniannische Un- terrichtswesen." Host important, perhaps, of all the societies is the International Association for the Advancement of Conunercial Education, of which Dr. Stegemann. of Brunswick, tier- many, is the jjresident and moving spirit. Of the special journals there should be mentioned the Zeitschrift fiir das gesamte kaufiniiunische Un- terrichtsicesen. published by Teubner. in I.eii)zig, and the Practical Educator, published in Colum- bus, Ohio. Many other journals treat various phases of conunercial education. Consult: Zieger, UaiKJclsscJiiilgedanken im 18. Jahrhuudert (Dresden, 1900) : Stegemann, Kauf- miinnisches Forlhildungsschulwesen ( Brunswick, 18!)(>) : Leautcy, L'rnnritjncment commercial et Ics fcoles de commerce en France et dans le monde entier (Paris, Librairie comptable et administrative) ; James, .1 Report on Educa- tion of Business Jlen in Europe (Report to American Bankers' Association, New York, 189.3) ; James, Commercial Education in the United States (Monographs on Education for Paris Exposition. Albany. N. Y., 1900) ; Hooper and Graham, Commercial Education at Home and Abroad (London. 1901): Ware, Educational Foundations of Trade and Industry (New York, 1901) ; .Sadler. Higher Commercial Education at Antiierp, Leipzig, I'uris, and Havre (London, 189S; Special Reports on Education, vol. iii.) ; Sadler, liccent Developments in Higher Commer- cial Education in Germany (same series, vol. ix.) ; Ilartog, Commercial Education in the Unit- ed lilulis (same series, vol. xi.). EDUCATION, CoMMis.sioxKR of. The chief oflicer of the Bureau of Education, at Washing- ton. He is appointed by the President and Sen- ale, and his duties are "to collect such statistics and facts as shall show the condition and progress of education in the several States and Territories"; to diffuse such "information re- specting the organization and management of schools and school systems and metliods of teach- ing as shall aid the people in the maintenance of efficient school systems, and otherwise promote the cause of education"; and also "to present annually to Congress a report embodying the result of his investigations and labors, together witu a statement of such fads and reconnnenda- tions as will, in his judgment, subserve the pur- pose for which the de])artment is established." The office was established in JIarcli. lS(i7. The incumbents have been Henry Barnard, 1807-70; John Eaton, 1870-8t): Nathaniel H. R. Dawson, 1886-89; William T. Harris, 1S89— . EDUCATION, CoMPULSoKY. See Nations al EDi'CArio.N. SisTEiis or. EDUCATION, Military. See JHutary Edu- cation. EDUCATION, National Systems of. See National Edication, Systems of. EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, Nation- .L. A society of teachers and educators organ- ized as the Nation.al Teachers' .Vssociation at Philadelphia, Pa., in 1857, and incoriKuatid imder its present name in the District of Colum- bia in 18SG. The aid which associated teachers might render to the progress of education was recognized in the United States early in the nineteenth century and a number of such socie- ties were formed, though of somewhat limited scope. Perhaps the best known of these, the American Institute of Instruction, org-anized in 1830, confined its work to New England: a similar society in the West, the Western Colleire of Teachers, was organized in Ohio in l.S:!l : the American Association for the Advancement of Education was founded at Phihulelphin in 1849, and there were, besides, numerous State educa- tional societies. In 1850, however, a call was issued by the presidents of twelve of the State societies, for a general association of national extent to "advance the dignity, respectability, and usefulness" of the teaching profession, and to develop educational science "by distributing among all the accumulated experiences of all." The society thus initiated grew slowly and did not gather large cll'cctivcness until its work be- gan to be specialized in 1870. In that year com- bination was made with the American Normal Association and the National Superintendents' Association, and dejiartments were instituled of higher and elementary instruction. Other sec- tions were then rapidly inaugurated so that the association at present includes the National Council, an advisory body, and seventeen de- partments devoted io the special problems of n.ethod, organization, and the courses of study in nearly every typo and grade of educational
