EGYPT. Phile until the reign of Justinian. Schismatic contests among the Christians did much harm. 707 EGYPT. on the public debt. His reckless extravagance made the Egyptian Question one of European polities, and it was closely associated with the Eastern Question (q.v.) by the opening of the Suez Canal. EGYPT AFTER THE FALL OF ROME. After the fall of the Roman Empire. Egypt almost dis- appeared from the knowledge of Europe; but it occupied an important place in the Mohamme- dan world. It was conquered by the Arabs under Amru (A.D. 639-41), and in 969 became the seat of power of the Fatimite dynasty, and its capi- tal, Cairo, was one of the religious centres of Islam. The Ayubites succeeded the Fatimites, and under Saludin (1171-93) united much of the Mohammedan world under their rule. In the thirteenth century it was politically and com- mercially the real heart of Mohammedanism, and the later Crusaders made it their objective point, with the idea of striking at the vital seat of the enemy's strength. The Crusaders took Damietta in 1219; but were caught in the Delta on the march to Cairo, and forced to cede all their conquests (1220). Damietta was again captured in 1249, by Louis IX. of France; but his army met a similar fate to that of the war- riors of the Fifth Crusade. in advancing on Cairo. In the retreat upon Damietta the army was destroyed, and the King was captured and compelled to pay a large ransom, a part of which was the surrender of Damiet ta. Under the Mameluke sultans (1250-1517), vigorous war- riors but poor administrators. the country fell into poverty and anarchy. The Turkish con- quest (1517) by Selim I. left the power of the Mameluke chiefs nearly unchanged. In 1798 Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Egypt and defeated the Mamelukes near the Pyramids; but the French forces in Egypt were expelled by the Turks, with British help, in 1801. In 1811 Mebemet Ali Pasha (q.v.) massacred the Mame- lukes, and formed an army which conquered parts of Arabia (1816) and Nubia (1820-22), but lost many troops in aiding the Porte during the Greek Revolution. Mchemet Ali founded the present ruling dynasty, and established himself as a practically independent ruler. In 1831 he rebelled, conquered Syria, and developed de- signs upon the whole Ottoman Empire: but in 1840 the intervention of Russia, England. Aus- tria, and Prussia forced him to evacuate Syria and renew his allegiance to the Porte. He im- proved the agriculture and defense of the coun- try, but nearly ruined the people by taxes and monopolies. He died in 1849, and his successors, his grandson, Abbas Pasha (1849-54). and his son, Said Pasha (1854-63), restored prosperity to the country and began the Suez Canal. Is mail Pasha (1863-79), who first received the title of Khedive or Viceroy from the Porte, pro- moted the construction of the Suez Canal by De Lesseps, extended the conquest of the Sudan be- gun hy Mehemet Ali, but was forced by the Porte several times to reduce his army and navy. Upon his accession the Egyptian debt was $16.- 000,000; in 1879 it had risen to $500,000,000. English and French banking houses were largely concerned in the solvency of the Egyptian Gov- ernment, and in 1875 the Khedive sold his 176.- 602 shares in the Suez Canal for £4,000,000 to England, thus laying the foundation for that country's influence in Egypt. In 1876 the reve- nue was put under the management of European commissioners: in 1878 the Khedive's private property went to help the payment of the interest When Ismail, in 1879, dismissed his financial minister. Nubar Pasha, and refused the payment of interest, the European governments forced his abdication in favor of his son Tewfik (1879- 92). In 1880 a dual British and French control was established, which caused a nationalist revolt in the following year, headed by Arabi Pasha (q.v.), a colonel in the army. The demands of the insurgents were that the army should be in- creased to its normal strength, that the Prime Minister of the Khedive. Riaz Pasha, should be dismissed, and that a Chamber of Notables, or National Parliament, should be convened to as- sume the government of the people as a repre- sentative body. Tewfik was alarmed by the pro- portions which the revolt had assumed, and a Chamber of Notables was summoned, which met at Cairo before the end of the year. In 1882 Arabi was taken into the new Cabinet as As- sistant Secretary of War. When it was found that France and England, through the Controller- General, were inclined to resist all the demands of the Chamber that would limit foreign inter- ference in the management of the finances, the resentment of the popular. or national. party rose to fever heat. Sherif Pasha, the new Pre- mier. favored the European powers. He was therefore forced to resign, and a new Ministry was appointed, with Mahmud Sami and Arabi Pasha at its head. But the Khedive and his Ministry represented such opposite lines of pol- icy that it was evident that a rupture between them was inevitable, and in the middle of May the crisis came. The Khedive's action in par- doning certain political offenders was violently attacked by the Nationalists, and England and France each sent out a fleet to Alexandria to maintain the authority of the Khedive, and de- manded the resignation of the Ministry and the exile of Arabi. The Ministers obeyed. but a popular outbreak caused the Khedive to rein- state Arabi. He was now the idol of the army and the populace, who, encouraged by their suc- cess, were threatening violence against their for- eign oppressors. An ordinary street fight in Alexandria culminated in a general uprising of the native populace against the Europeans. June 11th. Arabi was commissioned by the Khedive to restore order; but his known sympathy with the rioters only increased the panic of the for- eign colony, which fled from the city. England and France had vainly urged the Sultan to send troops into Egypt to enforce the authority of the Khedive and to suppress the growing power of Arabi, who was virtually dictator of the country. As the French hesitated to net, the English took matters into their own hands. A casus belli was found in the fact that certain forts in the harbor of Alexandria were being armed by orders of Arabi. The English admiral. Sir Beauchamp Seymour, accordingly bombarded the town. On the next day (June 12th) the insurgents evacuated Alexandria, leaving it in flames, and intrenched themselves at Kafi Dowar, about 12 miles distant. The Khedive sought refuge with the English fleet. He was formally deposed by the Nationalists, who organized a
