GRAPTOLITE. 144 GKASHOF. Axonophora, from tlie preceding forms (Diclio- graptidaD) without axes, as Axonolipa. Diplo- graptus begins in the Middle Ordovician, and ex- tends a short distance into the Silurian. It is succeeded by forms possessing the same general structure of the colonies, but with only uniserial arrangement of the cells, the Jlonograptida;. These flourished in the Silurian, where their colonies attained a great variety of form. Only the genus Diityonema passes with a few species into the Devonian sj'stem. The systematic position of the graptolites is uncertain. They are usually classed with the Hydroidea, as they show a general resemblance to some of the memljers of that group, namely the Sertularians. The rapid evolution of the grap- tolites and the different aspects of the faunules of successive beds has permitted the recog- nition of numerous graptolite zones in the Ordo- vician and Silurian rocks. In the Swedish Silu- rian alone fifteen zones have been distinguished. Some of the graptolite zones exhibit an aston- ishingly wide geographical distribution; a like succession of graptolite faunas has been found in Scandinavia, Great Britain, France, North Amer- ica, and Australia. This extensive distribution, which gives the graptolites great importance for the correlation of geographically widely sep- arated Paleozoic formations, is due to their hav- ing been pelagic animals, which were either free- floating or fastened to seaweeds floating in the open ocean. They are in sharp contrast to the great majority of "the fossils, corals, mollusks. and crustaceans, which were littoral animals, living in the shallow waters near the shore. For this reason the graptolites are nearly always found separated from other fossils, in a facies or pecu- liar rock phase of their own, the graptolite shales, mostly dark gray and black carbonaceous shales, upon the bedding planes of which they are crowded in immense numbers. BrBLiOGR.PiiY. Zittel and Eastman, Textbook of Paleontology, vol. i. (London and New York, 1900), where'a short bibliographic list is given; Hall, "Graptolites of the Quebec Group," in Canadian Orrjanie Remains, Decade II., Geolog- ical Survey of Canada (Montreal, 1865) ; Holm, various papers on the graptolites, in Geologiska Forcningens i Stocl-holm Forhandlingar (Stock- holm. 1895-1000) ; Lapworth, "Notes on the Brit- ish Graptolites." in Geoloqical Magazine, vols. X. and xiii. (London. 1873-76) ; Wiman, "On Monograptus and Diplograptus," in Journal of Geology, vol. ii. (Chicago" 1893) ; Wiman. "LTeber die Graptoliten," Bulletin of the Geological Insti- tute of the University of Upsala, vol. ii. (Upsala, 1895) ; Ruedemann, "Synopsis of Recent Progress in the Study of Graptolites." in American Natu- ralist, vol. xxxii. (Boston, 1898) ; id., "Growth and Develojiment of Goniograptus," in Bulletin of the Neiv York folate Museum, No. 52 (Albany, 1902). See Hydrozoa; Ccelenteeata ; Cam- brian System ; ORDO^^CIAN System ; Silurian System. GRAS, gra, Basile (1836-1901). A distin- guished French military officer and inventor. He was born at Saint-Amans de Pellaga (De- partment of Tarn-et-Garonne) , and was educated at the Ecole Polytechnique and the Ecole d'Ap- plicatinn at Metz. It was a time when all the nations of Europe were casting about for an improved infantry firearm, and the known genius of Captain Gras soon gained him national rec- ognition. His fnsil modile (or 'Gras rille'), as it was universally known, was adopted by tho French Government, and in 1874 the infantry troops were armed with it. It was subsequent- ly displaced by the discovery and introduction of the magazine principle, the Lebel rifle tak- ing its place in the French Army. It is still occasionally used, however, in Asia and South America. Gras became a professor at the School of Gunnery at Chalons, and was appointed a I)erraancnt member of the Goveninient commis- sion on firearms at that place. In 1888 he was appointed general inspector of the manufacture of small arms, receiving also the rank of general of division. He was a recognized authoritj' in his branch of the military profession, and was the author of many important papers and trea- tises in ser'ice magazines. GRAS, FliLix (1844-1901). A writer of the modem Provencal language. He was born at Maleniort, Vaucluse, May 3, 1844. After com- pleting his studies at Beziers, he settled in Avi- gnon, where he became associated with the found- ers of the modem Provencal revival. Joseph Roumanille, the so-called father of the Felibrigo, was his brother-in-law. He expressed his republi- can sentiments in a kind of operatic piece. La Carmagnole, the performances of which were stopped by the authorities. His first verses in Provencal' appeared in the Armana Prouven^au (Provencal Annual), in 1807. In 1870 he pub- lished Li Carbounic, a narrative poem in twelve cantos, and six years later Toloza, a more suc- cessful poem, also in twelve cantos, treating of the Albigensian Crusade. His best work in poetry is the Romancero Provencal, a collection of songs and short pieces. A volume of stories called Tii Papalino, treating of the days of the popes in Avignon, appeared in 1891. All these writings were published in Provencal with a French trans- lation. In 1891 he succeeded Roumanille as Capoulie (chief) of the Felibrige, which position he held until his death. In 1898 appeared his historic novel The Reds of the Midi. Singularly enough, it was first published in New York, in the English translation of Mrs. Catherine Jan- vier. A year later he wrote The Ten-or and The 'White Terror, a sequel to The Reds of the Midi ; these were published in Provencal, French, and English, the English version being made by Jlrs. Janvier. Felix Gras died March 4, 1901. See FfiLinRIGE. GRASBERGEB, grils'ber-ger, Lorenz (1830 — ) . A German classical philologist, born at H.artpennig. He was appointed a professor at the University of Wurzburg in 1867. His most important work is a comprehensive history of education in antiquity, Erziehung und Unterricht im khissischcn Altertuni (1864-81). GRASHOF, gras'hof, Franz (1826-93). A German engineer, born at Diisseldorf, and edu- cated at tiie Industrial School in Berlin. In 1863 he was .appointed professor of applied mechanics at the Polytechnical School. Karlsruhe, and director of the department of machine con- struction in that institution. For more than thirty-five years he was president of the Society of German Engineers, which society upon his death erected a monument to his memory at Karlsruhe. Besides numerous contributions to periodicals and editions of Redtenbacher's Re-
