GREAT BRITAIN. 183 GREAT BRITAIN. establishing the basis of a general educational sys- tem which is still in force. It attempted to pi-ovide for the education of all children between the ages of live and fourteen; annual Parliamentaiy grants were to be shared by the public and the private schools on the same conditions; there was to be a central administrative agency, and wher- ever the local needs were not amply provided for, school boards were to be elected and board schools established; in the board schools no religious catechism was to be taught, though re- ligious instruction might or might not be given, and in the voluntary schools religious instruction could not be forced upon a child if its parents ob- jected. In 1S72 a similar system was established for Scotland, but with elected school boards for every parish, and these have charge of higher as well as elenicntaiy education. Scotland has its own central administrative board. In 1900, the .separate departments of edu- cation and science, which had formerly e.isted in England, were united under a board of edu- cation. Tills board is expected to secure a better systemization of the secondary and technical de- pai-tments of instruction. The central authorities are assisted by a corps of insijectors and sub- inspectors. Every religious body now conforms with the conditions prerequisite to receiving aid. In England the voluntary schools still enroll over half the school attendance, their predominance being greatest in the smaller towns and rural dis- tricts. In Scotland the voluntary schools enroll (1897) only 22 per cent, of the school attendance. Education is now compulsoiy in both England and Scotland for the age period from five to four- teen, though under given conditions total or par- tial exemption may be secured at the age of eleven in England and of twelve in Scotland. In districts in which there are no boards, school com- mittees are appointed to secure the enforcement of the law in regard to attendance. Kindergarten work is given a prominent place in the elementary system. Women may be elected members of the school boards. Complete illiteracy records are not taken, but estimated upon the decided de- crea.se in the proportion of persons who cannot write their names on the marriage register — a decrease from 12.3.4 per thousand for husbands during the period 1881-85 to 29 in 1899— illiter- acy is being rapidly stamped out. Secondary and Technical Education. There is no secondary educational system in England, al- though a number of elementary schools give advanced secondary courses as well, a consid- erable number being adinirably equipped for this work. There is, however, a large number of sec- ondary schools maintained by private enterprise, endowment, subscription, etc. It was the en- dowed boys' schools of this class that in earlier years had been especially subject to abuse, but the investigation of the royal commission and the consequent passing of laws and the establish- ment of the endowed schools commission in the sixties resulted in revolutionizing the methods of these schools. In 1897 there were 158.000 bovs and 1.3.3.000 girls attending such voluntary schools, one-fourth of whom were hoarders. These schools emphasize distinctions based upon .social caste, and some of them are very exclusive. In Wales each county has an educational council, and over all is a central board with powers of inspection and examination of the secondary schools. Through these agencies secondary edu- cation is am|)ly provided for in 'ales. In Scotland, as we have already noted, school boards may establish secondary schools. Second- ary and tcclinical as well as elementary work is done at the evening continuation schools. The number of the.se .scliools and of their attendance has increased very rapidly, the enrollment in Eng- land having risen from 115.582 in 189,3 to 358.2(i8 in 1897, the average attendance for the year 1900 being 200,335. The Seotcli provision for evening continuation schools is almost identical with that of England. In England and Wales there is no thoroughly defined .system of technical in- struction, although, through the assistance of special grants, manual training and the indus- trial arts and sciences are given considerable at- tention, while the miuiiciivalities have been active in securing the erection of technical institutions. In Scotland technical schools may be established by the school boards. TE-iCiiEES. The early schools of Lancaster and Bell used the older pupils as teachers for the younger, the plan being known as the monitor sj'stem, which with some modification became known later as the pupil-teacher system. This class of teachers is now decreasing in number, and in 1890 wa.s less than one-fifth of the total number in England and Wales. There are a large number of teachers' colleges, and the universities generally provide training courses for teachers. Both of these types of schools are inspected and subsidized by the Government. The graduates of these schools are known as certificated teachers, and at the end of the nineteenth century those graduating annuall.v amounted to two-thirds the number needed. Those passing the examination for a teacher's certificate without taking the nor- mal course became known as assistant teachers, and these constituted (1900) nearly one-third of the total. There are more than twice as many female as male teachers. In Scotland the propor- tion of trained and of pupil teachers is consid- erably greater and of assistant teachers consider- ably less than in England and Wales. Teaching has become recognized as a life profession. In 1898 ii Parliamentary law was passed appli- cable to England, Scotland, and Wales, which provides a pension for teachers attaining the age of sixty-five years. In recent years there has been a decided increase in salary, so that the profession has become well paid. In 1897 the average salary of certificated male teachers was $613, and female teachers $407. Finance. The system of payment by 'results' grew into disfavor through the belief that it favored [wrfunctory methods of instruction, and after a number of modifications, in which the principle was partially retained, it was finally given up almost entirely (1895). The grant is now distributed, practically on the basis of aver- age attendance, to all sdiools that conform suf- ficiently with the requirements in the estimation of the inspectors. In Scotland the old principle is recognized to the extent that the amount of the grant may, upon the recommendation of the inspector, be reduced because of inferior instruc- tion to even one-half the regular rate. In 1891, a law was passed providing grants to all schools re- mitting fees, thus practically establishing free elementary instruction. A law of 1.S97 allows an extra annual grant to voluntary schools. These, however, ai-e not allowed to share in the
