ranged nearly all in single file extending for about 400 miles from southeast to northwest. The inhabited islands with their areas are, beginning at the southeast: Hawaii, 4210 square miles; Maui, 760; Kahulaui, 63; Molokai, 270; Lanai, 150; Oahu, 600; Kauai, 590; and Niihau, 97. Total area, 6740 square miles. Small as the land area is, it is about half that of all the other Polynesian Islands. Oahu is as large as the Society group; Maui corresponds in size with the Marquesas group; and the island of Hawaii is nearly as large as all the other Polynesian groups.
Topography and Geology. The islands are purely of volcanic origin, being really the summits of enormous volcanic cones raised by eruptions from the bottom of the ocean, which falls rapidly to a depth of 18,000 feet not far from the shores. The islands are all mountainous, but only one, Hawaii, is actively volcanic, having two of the largest craters in the world, Mauna Loa and Kilauea (q.v.). Hawaii is the most recent in order of formation; it is much less eroded than the others, and though it contains the highest peak of the group—Mauna Kea, 13,805 feet—its elevations are all rounded and easily ascended. The other islands, especially Kauai, which is considered the oldest, are deeply eroded into picturesque crags and deep ravines and gorges. The coasts are to a large extent steep and rocky, consisting in some places of precipices 100 to 500 feet high and extending for several miles. There are some sandy beaches, however, and in many places the coasts are lined with coral reefs; between the mountains and the coasts extend fertile plains and valleys, which are the scene of agricultural activity.
Climate and Hydrography. The climate is in general characterized by a remarkable equability of temperature; it is never too warm and never cold, except on the mountain summits, and even within the narrow limits there are no sudden changes. This is due to the fact that there are neither large ice-fields nor hot continental deserts within thousands of miles, and the winds which reach the islands have to pass over a broad expanse of water of a uniform and moderately warm temperature. The average temperatures of the lowlands of Hawaii are 70° for January and 78° for July, and the extreme maximum and minimum temperatures recorded are, respectively, 89° and 54°. On the mountain peaks, of course, frosts occur, and snow sometimes remains throughout the year. The mean temperature is about 10° cooler than in any other land in the same latitude. The winds show the same equability: the prevailing winds for ten months in the year are the northeast trades. Alternate diurnal land and sea breezes occur, especially on the southwest coasts and around Hilo Bay on the northeast coast of Hawaii; warm southwest gales are also common in winter. Storms are rare, and hurricanes unknown. With respect to humidity and rainfall, however, the climate is extremely varied, each narrow locality having its own peculiar climate, depending on its position with regard to the winds and mountains. Most of the rain is brought by the northeast trade winds, and, owing to the great elevation of the islands, it is almost all precipitated on the northeastern sides, which have accordingly the most varied vegetation, while the leeward or southwestern sides are much drier and, especially in Hawaii Island, almost arid. Just above Hilo Bay, where the cold winds from the mountains meet the warm and moist trade winds, there is an annual rainfall of 100 to 200, and even 250, inches, one of the heaviest in the world; but at Honolulu the rainfall is only about 32 inches a year. Though the sky is as a rule clear and sunny when it is not actually raining, the humidity is considerable, turning to almost oppressive sultriness during the winter southwest winds. In general, the climate is very healthful and agreeable to Europeans, but it is not an ideal one for cases of pulmonary tuberculosis.
The rivers of Hawaii are nearly all small mountain torrents, and, as might be foreseen from the foregoing, they are largely confined to the north and east sides of the island.
Flora and Fauna. The indigenous flora and fauna of Hawaii are interesting, as they partake of the characters both of the Asiatic and Australian, as well as of the American flora. There are about 130 species of ferns and 900 species of flowering plants, of which 600 are peculiar to the islands. Some of the characteristic plants are a peculiar Pandanus or screw-pine, several tree-ferns, and among the forest trees the Koa (Acacia Koa). Forests still cover large areas of the uplands, but have greatly decreased. Where vegetation is found it generally grows luxuriantly, but large areas, especially in Hawaii, are covered with naked lava fields.
There are very few indigenous mammals in Hawaii, and no reptiles, except a single species of lizard. The birds are interesting, including many peculiar and highly specialized species, notably in the family Drepanididæ, which differ characteristically from those of the rest of Polynesia. The land mollusks have also reached a remarkable development, almost every valley having its own peculiar species, some of which are allied to those of Mexico and California.
Agriculture. Hawaii is of industrial interest almost wholly by virtue of its agricultural development. The physical and climatic conditions make possible the successful cultivation of a very large variety of industrial plants, including those of both the temperate and tropical zones. The area of possible cultivation is greatly limited, however, by the decidedly mountainous character of the islands and the area covered with lava. Less than half the total area, or about 2,000,000 acres, is adaptable to grazing, and 294,000 acres are improved. The soils, wholly derived from basaltic lavas, are formed either by decomposition (the dark and light red and yellow soils) or by sedimentation, the decomposed rocks being removed by rainfall to lower altitudes. The highland soils are thin and poor, having been depleted of many soluble elements that nourish plants; the upland soils (dark red), just above the sedimentary flats and lowlands, and the lowland soils are very deep and remarkably productive. In a general way the variety of crops depends upon the elevation. Sugar-growing is largely confined to the low plains and hillsides, followed on the higher levels in turn by coffee, fruits and vegetables, and pasture lands, but these zones are not clearly defined. In the census year 1900 there were only 86,854 acres in crops. Prominent among the factors which have prevented a fuller development have been the absence of a local market and the great scarcity
