GOTTINGEN. 77 antiquities. The Aula has a picture collection with some good examples of the early Dutch and German schools. Uottingen is provided with a good water-supply. The cliiet manufactures are cloth, leather, scientific instruments, tohacco, and famous lioloyna sausages. The lilumeuhach col- lection of skulls is in (.Jotlingeu. I'upulation, in ISUO, 23,(iS!); in 1!R)0, 30,234, chietly Protestants. The town is first mentioned in the tenth cen- tury. It was given municipal rights hy Otho IV. at the beginning of the thirteenth century, and in 1261 became the residence of the Princes of lirunsnick-Liinehurg. It was a prominent member of the Hanseatic League, and famous for its cloth goods. Its prosperity' was interrupted by the Thirty Years' War, when it fell twice into the hands of the Swedes. The establishment of the university gave Giittingen new importance, and at the close of the eighteenth century it was a fiourishing literary centre. GOTTINGEN, University op, or Georq-Au- GUST U.iEi!siTy. A German university founded by Georg August, Elector of Hanover, better known a.s George II. of England. It was planned as early as 1732, there being no university in Hanover at that time, and lectures were begun two years later ; but the formal foundation dates from 1737. Its organization was the work of the statesman Von Miinchhausen. a man of marked ability, who remained in control fur many years. Noted teachers, a well-chosen library, a large endowment, and the liberal character of the uni- versity soon gave it distinction. The Seven Years' War was a time of de])ression, but between 1770 and 1790 it was again much frequented. The courses in history, philology, and law were preeminent ; in the study of histoi-y especially broader and more liberal conceptions prevailed. During the French Revolution and the Napoleonic wars there was another period of depression, followed by renewed prosperity. In 1823 the attendance was greater than it is in 1903; but re- verses in 1831 and 1837 brought affairs for a third time under a cloud. During the latter half of the nineteenth century, however, there was a slow and steady growth, due mainly to the excel- lence of the instruction in mathematics and the natural sciences. The students number nearly ISOO. There are a large number of laboratories, clinics, seminaries, and the like. The Iil)rary con- tains 6000 manuscripts and over 500,000 volumes; for modern books it is probably the richest in Germany. Consult: Piitter, Saalfeld, and Oester- ley. Die Qeorg-Augiist-Universitdt (Gottingen, 1838) ; Chronik- der Georg- August-Universitdt fib- ISS'l-'JO (Hanover, 1890). GOTTLING, get'ling, Karl Wilhelm (1793- 1809). A German philologist, born at Jena. He studied under Wolf, Biickh, and Buttmann at Berlin, and after holding various minor pro- fessorships was appointed professor extraordi- nary of philology- at Jena in 1822, and full professor in 1832. In 1826 he was made direc- tor of the Philological Seminary and university librarian. His chief works are; Vehrr dn.i Or- srliichtlichc im yibclungenliede (I8I4) ; Nihelun- gen und Qhibellinen (1817); Allgeiaeme Lehre vom Accent in der griechischen Sprache (5th ed. 1835, translated as Elements: of CIre.eU Accentua- tion., London, I83I); Oeschichte der romischen Staatsverfassting his auf Cdsars Tod (1840); and Gesammelte Abhandlungen aus dem klassi- GOTTSCHALK. xclien Altertum (vol. i. 1851, vol. ii. 1864) ; and editions of Aristotle's I'olilica (1824) and Cfc'co- nomica (1830), and of Hesiod's VaniiiiKi (3d ed. 1878). His Opusvula Aeademica (1869) were published and cilited after Giittling's death by Fischer. Consult: Der llrUfireclmrl ,: k i.sc/i oi Uoctlw und aiiUling (Munich, 1880) ; Nipper- dey, Jlemoria C. (locftliiigii (Jena, 1869) ; and Lotldiolz, Karl Wilhchn OiJttling (Slargard, 1876). GOTTSCHALK, got'slialk, or Fulgentius (c. 80r)-c. 868) , A prominent figure in a theo- logical controversy of the ninth century. He was the son of Berneo, a Saxon count, and was placed by his parents at an early age in the monastery of Fulda. At the approach of manhood he tried to .secure release from his vows, but failed owing to tlie opposition of his abbot, Rabanus ilauriis ( q.v. ) , He was permitted to remove to the monastery of Orbais in the diocese of Soissons, and there devoted himself to the writings of Saint Augustine, and became an enthusiastic believer in the doctrine of predestination, even going be- yond hts master, and holding to a predestina- tion to condemnation as well as to salvation. In 837-838 he went to Italy, partly for the pur- pose of spreading his views. It was there he met Bishop Noting, who was so scandalized by Gott- schalk's views that he called upon Rabanus to assist in suppressing the heretical opinions. In 839 Gottschalk became priest, and tlien had the right to preach. This gave him a great advan- tage. In 845-848 he was again in Italy, and for two years was the guest of Eberhard, Count of Friuli, Rabanus, now Archbishop of Mainz, warned the Count against GJottschalk as a dan- gerous heretic, and he turned him out of doors, Gottschalk then wandered into Germany, preach- ing everywhere, Rabanus accused bim of neg- lecting the distinclion between foreknowledge and foreordination ; on the other hand, he him- self refused to recognize any difference between predestination to punisliment and predestination to sin. At a synod held in Mainz in 848, and pre- sided over by Rabanus, Gottschalk presented a written explanation in defense of his views; he was, however, very sumniarily found guilty of heresy, and handed over to his ecclesiastical supe- rior, Hincniar of Rheims, to be dealt with as his crime might deserve. He was again condemned in an assembly at Quircy in 849 — this time not only as a heretic, but also as a despiser of authority, and as a disturber of the Church's peace — and sentenced to be whipped severely and rigorously imprisoned. The place selected for his captivity was the Monastery of Hantvilliers, in the Diocese of Rheims, and here he langiiislied throughout the remainder of his life, a period of twenty years, notwithstanding the efforts of in- fluential friends and his own pitiful appeals. Tie died October 30, 868 or 869, and was Iniried in unconsecrated ground. Fragments of his A-orks Mere published by Migne, Patrol. Lat., cxxi. Consult his life bv Borrasch (Thorn, 1868), and Gaudard (Saint Qucntin, 1888). GOTTSCHALK, Lotiis Moreau (1829-69). A famous American pianist and composer, born at New Orleans, La. At twelve years of ase he took up the study of music under Halle and Maleden. in Paris, and from 1845 to 1852 made successful tours of Continental Europe. In 18.53 he returned to his native land and repeated his
