NATIONAL EDUCATION. 261 NATIONAL EDUCATION. foreemi'iit ul Ihe Associatiunh Law of UlOl. In the LniluJ States S.l pi-r cent, of all elementary and secondary school attendance is in pi'ivate schools. The result of the vigorous efforts of the most progressive States within the nineteenth centurj' is the almost entire disappearance of illiteracy within their borders. Germany, Switzerland, and Sweden find less than 1 per cent, of their con- scripts unable to read and write. In Holland, England, and France the proportion of illiteracy grows greater, 4.0 per cent, of the French re- cruits in 1807 being ignorant of letters. In Italy the jiercentage of illiterate conscripts in 1800 was S'S.S, and the marriage register shows that 50 per cent, of the women called upon to sign it were unable to do so. In Spain the percentage of illiteracy was estimated as 68 per cent, in 1880. and this proportion has probably not been greatly reduced since that date. In the United Slates in 1890, 13 per cent, of the population over ten years of age could neither read nor write. This large proportion, however, is due to the enormous negro population and to extensive emi- gration from Eastern and Snuthern Europe. At the same date only seven per cent, of the native population over ten years of age was illiterate. Doubtless the proportion of illiterate adults whose parents were native would in America (if we exclude negroes) be about as small as that of illiterat-^ conscripts in the European States having the most effective systems of popular edu- cation. To-day the great problem of popular edu- cation is not the abolition of illiteracy, but the training in vocations. In 1890-1000 20.38 per cent, of the population of the United States were enrolled in elementary schools. Prussia and Switzerland show about tile same percentages. Then follow England, Sweden, and France. Italy had only 7.36 per cent, of her populiition in elementary schools in 1808, Avhile in Russia this percentage was in 1890 only about 3. The United States also leads in the amount expended for elementary education, whether we calculate the rate of expenditure per capita on the total population or per pupil on the enrollment in the schools. The average ex- penditure per pupil in 1800-1000 was .$20, about double that of England and France, and nearly three times that of Prussia. Italy and Russia spent in 1000 $.5.1.5 and $5.12 per pupil respec- tively. The United States spent on elementary education in 1800-1000 .$2.83 per capita on the total population. Prussia followed w'ith $1.20 per ca])ita. These comparisons are based on statistics that vary from year to year and are constantly becoming more reliable. In the series •■Our Eui-opean Neiglibors" ( New York, 1001-03) each volume contains a good brief popular ac- count of the schools of the respective European countries. FRANCE. The French system of education affords the best example of centraliz.ation and uniformity in educational affairs that the world has seen. It has been built up since the Revolution, and in- stead of taking charge of existing schools (most of which were clerical) the French Oovernment has established its own system, which has been L'radiially replacing other educational agencies. The latest act in this drama of rivalry is the active suppression by the State of a large part of the instruction carried on liy religious asso- ciations. To this reference will be made later. The present system of elementary instruction may be said to have begun with Guizot's law of 1833, by which each commune was required to establish a primary school and each department a normal school. Not until 1878, however, when the central Government began to grant and loan money to communes for the constriictiim of school buildings, did this law become really effective. The present organic law was jiassed in 188ti. The sy.stem of public instruction in France comprises three departments, primary, secondary, and higher. They are all under centralized con- trol. At the head of the system stands the Min- ister of Public Instruction, who is a Cabinet of- ficer. Each of the great departments has a spe- cial director. The central administration in- cludes, in addition, the Superior Council of Pub- lic Instruction, and the general inspectors. The Superior Council consists of about GO members, and has advisory and judicial functions. One- fourth of its members are appointed by the President. Other vacancies are filled by the Council itself. It has a committee to consult with the school authorities regarding school mat- ters. Officials exist for the inspection of every phase of school work. For convenience in educational administration, France (including Algeria) is organized into 17 academies. Each one comprises a university, associated Ij'cees, and colleges, and the public primary schools within its limits. At the head are a rector, an academic council, composed of professors and officers of education, and an aca- demic inspector. Under the academic inspectors serve the primary inspectors, who come in direct touch with the schools, each one having super- vision of about 150. The departments of France, of which there are 00, constitute the next divi- sion for school administration. The prefect has the ])ower of appointing elementary teachers, and there is an advisoiy council for primary schools composed of teachers, school inspectors, and members of the civic council. In the communes the councils and mayors select sites for school buildings, and vote the funds for the communal school expenditures. There are also committees formed to encourage school attendance. It has been said that the control of schools in France is highly centralized. The President of the Republic appoints the Minister of Instruction, the general inspectors, the professors in the uni- versities, the rectors of the academies, the pre- fects of the departments. Of these, the general inspectors have passed a special examination, and professors in the universities' are chosen from lists submitted by the Superior Council and the university council. The general inspectors and the rectors are appointed on nomination by the Minister of Public Instruction, and his advice is asked regarding the professors. He appoints the rest of the officials of the central department, the central examination boards, the academy in- spectors, the primary inspectors, the secondary teachers, the officials in the normal schools, and in the superior elementary schools. Inspectors are drawn only from the ranks of experienced teachers, who have held important positions. They are required to pass a special examin.ation. So, too, are the professors in normal schools. The primary teachers are required to pass an exami- nation or to be graduates of normal schools.
