PUNCTUATION. 549 PUNISHMENT. rhetorical punctuation and grammatical punctua- tion, with the supposition that in the former case, for jruidauce in reading, each place of natu- ral pause should be indicated by a dis- tinctive point. It was probably this rhetorical or elocutionary consideration that led to the as- signment of time values to the marks. The conmia was said to indicate a pause long enough to count one, the semicolon two, the colon three, and the period four. But good reading or speak- ing does not justify this notion of counting, pauses being made where even a rhetorical punc- tuator would not indicate them, and the time of the pause being often shortened or lengthened in a way that cannot be recognized without the addition of other distinctive marks not yet in- vented. In any case the reader's individuality may ignore punctuation. Consequently, punctua- tion governed by purely grammatical circum- stance seems likely to prevail increasingly, al- though it has not yet entirely superseded the other method. Another classification has been made, including, besides rhetorical and gram- matical, eti/inoluffical and reference punctuation; but. although the marks for the last two pur- poses are used in jjositions similar to those of real jumctuation, their nature more nearly ap- proaches that of diacritics. The comma is used to mark the slightest ac- tual turn or jointure in grammatical construc- tion, and thus occurs much more frequently than any other point. Very often it is placed after a long nominative without an actual break in sense, but no one has ever prescribed an exact or even apjuoximate length of the subject after which tile comma is to be used. The semicolon is used after a clause when the turn in sense is too distinct to use merely a comma, and not .sutticient for a period; most fre- quently between clauses all or some of which con- tain commas. Often a semicolon is placed be- tween what might be made separate sentences; this is done, as it is in this instance, because of a closer connection of sense than where the sen- tence form is used. Discriminative use of the semicolon is often considered a test of punctua- tion. The colon is now generally confined to an in- troductory function, being comparatively seldom used as a mark of ordinary grammatical punctua- tion. The period is used at the end of every sentence that is not a question or an exclamation, an interrogatory or exclamatory sentence being prop- erly ended with its own appropriate nuirk. The dash is used to denote a sudden change in the construction, a suspension of sense, an unex- pected transition in the sentiment, a sudden in- terruption, or hesitation. JIarks of parenthesis are used to inclose a word, phrase, clause, or sentence inserted inde- pendently, as for explanation or any similar pur- pose. Square brackets inclose an insertion not merelv disconnected, but having no etl'ect on the meaning of the context, an editorial explanatory word or phrase, or an independent direction, as in dramatic composition. An apostrophe is the sign or part of a sign of the possessive; it takes the place of letters omitted in contracting a word; and it is used to mark the end of a quotation whose beginning is marked by inverted commas. The use of varioiis other marks is commonly ex- plained in treatises on punctuation, including marks of reference, elision, emphasis, connection, and diacritics. Some diHerence in punctuation is generally considered necessary according to ditferences in composition. Thus, a succession of short sen- tences may need very little pointing within any sentence, while even the same thoughts might be expressed by the use of one long, complex sen- tence that demands, for unmistakable division into parts not liable to confusion in reading, cor- respondingly complex punctuation. Accordingly, authors nmst determine this matter without strict reference to any fornuilated set of rules, as occasional demands for special pointing cannot all be comprehended in any system. As a rule, for instance, the frequent use of dashes has been stigmatized as a mark of ignorance; but. not- withstanding, it ma_v be — but not often — truly artistic. Again, while it has been said that the colon has practically gone out of use as a jiurely grammatical point, it also may be used freely by a master hand w ith so good eti'ect as to be beyond criticism. Among the fullest and most noted of the older treatises are: Brown, (Irammar of Eng- lish Grammars (1851 and nianj- later editions) ; Wilson. Treatise on Punctuation (18.50 and many later editions). Recent special works are: Bige- low. Hanflhook of Punctuation (Boston, lSS5j ; Teall, Punctuation (New York, 18'J7). PUNTJIT (from Skt. pandita, learned). The name given to a Brahman who is versed in the Sanskrit language, and in the science, laws, and religion of tlie Hindus. PUNICA FIDES, pu'ni-ka fi'dez (Lat., Punic faith). A term used by the Romans to express treachery, in allusion to the popular conception of ihe, Carthaginians. PUNIC WARS. The name commonly given to the three great wars w-aged between Rome and Carthage: the first (B.C. 264-241) ended with the cession of the Carthaginian part of Sicily to Rome; the second (B.C. 218-201) resulted in the loss of Spain to Carthage, and the third (B.C. 149-140) in the destruction of Carthage. The Latin word punieus. or pa-nicus. was the name given by the Romans to the Carthaginians, in allusion to their Phccnician descent. See CvE- tu.ge: H.vmilc.U!; H..nxibal; Rome; Scipio. PUNISHMENT (from punish, from OF.. Fr. punir, from Lat. punire. prjcnire, to punish, from prrna. ]mnishment. expiation, pain, from Gk. ttoii-t;. poinc. punishment : connected with Gk. Tlye'ii/. tinrin, Skt. ci, to avenge). Pain or suf- fering inflicted because of some misdeed. In criminal law the word punishment is used to designate the penalty inflicted by the State upon a person for committing a criminal ofl'ence. The earliest forms of punishment were those which carried with them the idea of vengeance and were inflicted with the desire to do barm to him who had previously done harm. More re- cently, however, the idea of retribution has made way for the theories of prevention and reforma- tion. The former of these theories insists that the State shall inflict upon a criminal only such punishment as will keep hira from further wrong-doing and deter others from criminal acts. The latter theory regards the reformation of the criminal as the only legitimate design of punish- ment an<l maintains that when this is accom- plished further punishment should cease. None of these three theories — of retribution, preven-
