TALMUD. 13 TALTAIi. Babylonia. Sophistrj' and hair-splitting dia- lectics arc siuUlcnly interrupted by charming parables and poetic allegories. In a sense, it is easier to say what the Geniara docs not contain than to summarize its contents. It is a veritable encyclopaedia of Rabbinical knowledge, and only the lack of system prevents the justifiable ap- plication of that term to this remarkable com- pilation. To distinguish the purely legal from the extraneous material, a division is eommonl}' made into Halacha (lit., norm) and Hagada (lit., tale). The history of the Talmud is the history of Judaism from about the beginning of our era to the dawn of the nineteenth century. In that history we may distinguish the following pe- riods : ( I ) To the completion of the Mishna, during which time the Rabbis bear the name of Tana'im ('teachers') ; five generations are enu- merated. (2) The growth of the Gemara, the Rabbis of this second period being known as Amoraim ('speakers"), comprising seven genera- tions. (3) To the completion of the Talmud, the Rabbis of this period being distinguished as 8aboraim ('examiners'). (4) To the struggle in the ninth and tenth centuries between the Karaites and the adherents of the Talmud known as the Rabbanites, marked by the labors of Saadia (q.v. ). (5) The adjustment of Tal- mudical Judaism to the prevailing form of Aris- totelianism, which arose under the influence of Islamic theology'. This period extends well into the thirteenth century and is dominated by the influence of Maimonides and the Spanish school of Jewish thinkers. It led eventually, after a long conflict between the adherents and oppo- nents of Maimonides's attempt to codify the Tal- mudical enactments and regulations in syste- matic form, to the compilations of the codes of Joseph Karo (born 1487), know^n as the Shul- chaii Aruch ('Spread table'), which became the standard guide implicitly followed by orthodox Jews to the present time, and may be regarded as marking a sixth and final period. In the course of the last two periods the study of the Talmud spread gradually into Southern Europe and thence made its way into Germany, Galicia, Hungary, and Russia. Commentators arose who devoted themselves to the interpreta- tion of the Gemara, much as the Amoraim and Saboraim elaborated the Mishna and super-com- mentaries were added to these commentaries. The most notable of the Talmudical commen- tators was Rabbi Solomon Yishaki (or Isaac), known as Rashi (q.v.), whose work, almost in- variably added to the Talmudic text, is still used as the basis of Talmudical study. A school of Talmudists arose in Germany and France during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries known as Tosaphifits ('Supplementers') , whose comments are likewise written on the margins of the Tal- mud — a method that follows the example of the Jlohammedan theologians. Other commentators of more recent date whose works acquired a high desree of authority were Solomon Luria (d. 1.573). Elijah Wilna (d. 1737).- and Akiba Eger (d. 1837). From Germany, which remained itor several centuries the centre of Talmudical study, that centre gradually shifted to the east of Europe, and at the present time the traditional methods of Talmudical study are still carried on with vigor in Galicia and Russia, while the centre of the scientific study of the Talmud based on adequate philological acquirements and the application of proper historical principles nuiy be said to be Germany, whence the stu<iy is spreading into France, England, and tlie United States, as the value of the Talmud for the student of language, of history, and of religion is coming to be recognized. Christian theologians are also beginning to take it up, and notable contributions have been made by some of these. BiisLioGKAPiiT. No critical edition of the en- tire Talmud has as yet been published. The variant readings gathered from manuscripts and older editions have been published by Raphael Rabbinovicz, Sefer Dikdukc Hopherim ( 15 vols., Munich, 1808-86), which constitutes the basis for a future standard edition. Of translations of the Talmud into modern languages, it will be suf- ficient to mention here the French translation of the Palestinian Talmud by Moise Schwab (7 vols., Paris, 1871), the German translation of the Babylonian Talmud by L. Goldschmidt ( Ber- lin, 1800 sqq.), and the English translation of the Babylonian Talmud by Rodkinson (New York, 1896 sqq.). An English translation of 18 treatises of the Mishna by J. Barclay was pub- lished in London in 1878. Of general works on the Talmud, the following may be mentioned: I. Hamburger, Realencyklopddie filr Bibel und Talmud (Leipzig, 1886) ; Ferd. Weber, Judische Theologic auf Grund des Talmud (ib., 1897). Of monographs or articles on the Talmud, consult : Deutsch. "The Talmud," in Literary Remains, republished by the American .Jew- ish Publication Society (Philadelphia, 1897) ; Ars&ne Darmesteter, Tho Talmud (Eng. trans., Philadelphia, 1897) ; Bernfeld, Der Talmud, scin Wesen, seine Bedeutung und seine Ge- schichte (Berlin, 1900) ; Strack, Einleitung in den Talmud (3d ed., Leipzig, 1901), which con- tains in concise form the contents of the Talmud, editions, history, and a valuable bibliograpliy. Consult also Mielziner, Introduetion to the Tal- mud ('2d ed.. New York, 1902) ; Rodkinson, His- ionj of the Talmud (New York, 1903). See Gemara ; Haggada ; Halacha ; Mishna. TALON, ta'!6N', Jean Baptiste (1625-91). A French official in Canada, born in Picardy. He entered the civil service, and, after serving in subordinate capacities in France, was appointed in 1663 intendant of justice, police, and finance in Canada, Arcadia, and the other French pos- sessions in North America. Talon built ships, began trade with the West Indies, and built a brewery to lessen the consumption of brandy. Exploring parties were sent to Hudson Bay and to the country of the Upper Lakes, and tho purchase or seizure of New York was urged. In 1068 he returned to France on account of fail- ing health, but returned in 1670 and remained until 1672. Later three of his seigniories were erected into baronies and he assumed the title of Comte d'Orsainville. His Memoire a la majeste sur I'efat present du Canada (1667) is a valu- able original source of information. TALTAL, tal-tal'. A town of the Province of Autofagasta, Chile, on the Bay of Taltal, Pacific Ocean, 527 miles north of Valparaiso (Map: Chile, C 9). It is the terminus of the railway of some 95 miles running to the mining town of Cachinal, and is the point of export for the nitre-beds and silver and copper mines of the deserts of Atacama (q.v.). Taltal was founded about 1855. Population, in 1885, 4761.
