THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 231 THIRTY YEARS' WAR. dissolution of the Evangelical Union ensued. The cause of the Elector Palatine, however, whose hereditary dominions, the Upper and the Lower Palatinate, were assailed, found inde- pendent and intrepid champions in Mansfeld and Christian of Brunswick, lawless partisan lead- ers. George Frederick, the Margrave of Baden- Durlaeh, also took up arms for Frederick, and he and Mansfeld gained a victory over Tilly at Wiesloch on April 27, 1622. On ilay Gth, how- ever, the former was vanquished by Tilly at Wimpfen, and on .Tune 20th a like disaster befell Christian of Brunswick at HiJchst. On August 6. 1023, Christian of Brunswick sustained a second defeat at the hands of Tilly at Stadt- lohn. Frederick was stripped of his possessions. The Upper Palatinate and the electoral dignity were conferred on Maximilian of Bavaria. The war might have ended with this local struggle, but the outrageous treatment to which the Protestant States of Xorth Germany were subjected pressed the conflict on to its second phase. Christian IV. of Denmark, aided by a British subsidy, went to the aid of his German co-religionists in 162o. and being joined by Mans- feld and Christian of Brunswick, advanced into Lower Saxony, while the Emperor, hampered by the political jealousy of the Catholic League, was at first unable to oppose him. It was at this juncture that Wallenstein came forward and placed a great army, raised by himself, at the disposal of Ferdinand. This army acted in coiiperation with that of the Catholic League under Tilly. Mansfeld was completely defeated by Wallenstein at Dessau (April 25, 1626) . and the forces of Christian IV. were routed by Tilly at Lutler (.ugust 27. 102fi). Wallenstein marched as far as Hungary in pursuit of Mans- feld, who died in November, 1626. The combined Imperialists and Leaguers overran North Ger- many and Wallenstein penetrated into the heart of Denmark. The Imperialist commander con- ceived the design of making Austria a power on the Baltic, but his career in this direction was checked by the heroic defense of Stralsund (1628). King Christian was forced to conclude the humiliating peace of Liibeck (May 12. 1620). Inflamed by his success. Ferdinand had. on March 6. 1620. issued the Edict of Restitution, by which the Protestant titles to all ecclesias- tical lands acquired after L552 were declared void. Thus closed the second period of the war, with the Protestant States infuriated by the edict and the proud city of Magdeburg alone in arms to resist its execution. Richelieu fq.v.). developing the anti-Hapsburg policy of Henry IV., had promoted, as far as the internal affairs of France would allow, the dis- sensions in Germany. He now succeeded in bringing into the struggle the able and ambitious Protestant King of Sweden. Gustavus Adolphus (q.v.). This ruler, desirous of promoting Prot- estantism and of securing the control of the Baltic, took the field, and the Swedish phase of the war began with the landing of the Swedes on the coast of Pomerania in the summer of 1630. .Tiist at this time the princes of the Catholic League, exasperated by the overhearing conduct of Wallenstein and the excesses of his soldiery, forced the Emperor to dismiss him, Tilly being made commander-in-chief of the Catholic forces. Gustavus Adolphus, who in .January, 1631, entered into a subsidiary alliance with France, advanced .southward into Germany. The electors of Saxony and Bran<lenburg at first remained neutral, but finally were forced to join him. The obstacles in his path delayed him until it was too late to rescue .Magdeburg, which on ilay 20, 1631, was stormed by Tilly and Pap- penheim, whose troops burned the town and massacred the inhabitants. On September 17 (old style, September 7), 1631, the Swedish King, strengthened by the Saxon army under Arnini, overwhelmed Tilly at Breitenfeld, near Leipzig, a victory which completely restored the Prot- estant cause. He then victoriously traversed the Main and Rhine valleys ; forced the pas.sage of the Lech in front of' the army of Tilly, who was mortally wounded (April 1")", 1632) ; entered Munich, and threatened the Hapsburg dominions. Wallenstein, meanwhile, had been recalled to raise and command the Imperialist armies to meet this formidable enemy. He compelled the Swedes by skillful strategy, to return to Saxony. There the Swedes won the battle of Liitzen . (q.v.), November 16 (old style, November 6), 1632, after an obstinate engagement in wdiich Gustavus was killed. His death was a severe blow to the Protestant cause, but the energy and ability of the Swedish Chancellor, Oxenstierna (q.v.), and the brilliant talents of the Swedish generals, preserved the advantages that had been gained. After the battle of Liitzen Wallen- stein remained long inactive, engaging in endless negotiations. Bernhard (q.v.) of Saxe-Weiniar, one of the ablest of the Protestant leaders, over- ran Bavaria, and on November 14, 1633, stormed Ratisbon. The behavior of Wallenstein, after a display of activity, inaugurated by a victory over the Swedes at Steinau, October 13, 1633, finally left no doubt in the mind of Ferdinand II. that his general was meditating treason. He was deposed from his command and was as- sassinated at Eger in Bohemia, on February 25, 1634. His virtual successor, Gallas, inflicted a crushing defeat on Bernhard of Weimar and the Swedish general, Horn, at Niirdlingen (Septem- ber 6, 1634) which again restored to the Em- peror a preponderating influence in Germany. Saxony now made peace at Prague (May 30. 1635), the Elector securing important territorial gains. Other Lutheran States withdrew from the conflict, the Calvinists being left to their fate. Final success now appeared to demand only one more strenuous effort on the part of Austria ; but Oxenstierna was determined to preserve to Sweden her German acquisitions, and Richelieu saw that the time had come for France to throw herself into an active struggle against both .u3- tria and Spain. The conflict advanced into its final and most extended phase. At first the Hapsburg side was enabled to make a show of strength. France being invaded by a combined force of Spaniards. Imperialists, and Lotharin- gians. but with siicb commanders on their side as Bernhard of Weimar and the Swedish general Ban^r, the tide soon set in strongly in favor of the Protestants. The victory of Baner over the Imperialists and Saxons at Wittstock (October 4. 1636) restored to Sweden the advantage lost two years before. Bernhard of Weimar, in the pay of France, fought with energy and success, ambitious to found a State for himself. In 1638
