January 13, 1813; James Monroe (acting), September 27, 1814; William H. Crawford. Georgia, August 1, 1815. Secretary of the Navy, Paul Hamilton, South Carolina, March 7, 1809; William Jones, Pennsylvania, January 12, 1813; B. W. Crowninshield, Massachusetts, December 19, 1814. Attorney-General, C. A. Rodney, continued; William Pinkney, Maryland, December 11, 1811; Richard Rush, Pennsylvania, February 10, 1814. Postmaster-General, Gideon Granger, continued; Return J. Meigs, Ohio, March 17, 1814.
The beginning of Madison's administration witnessed a further straining of relations between the United States and England. Though the acts of France had been, in the main, no less unjust and arrogant than those of England, she had never attempted the impressment of American seamen, which had been made easy for England by identity of language and by the fact that, in some cases, British deserters were actually found upon American ships. Moreover, the Republican Party, now in power, had been traditionally the friend of France. Hence, as time went on, England was especially singled out for American dislike, and this feeling increased when the West complained that British agents were exciting disaffection on the frontiers and intriguing with the Indians, color being given to this latter charge by the hostility of some of the Indians and Tecumseh's attempt to form an Indian confederation. See Tecumseh; Tippecanoe, Battle of.
In 1810 England and France each professed a readiness to repeal the decrees that had so hampered American commerce, if the other would do so first. France then revoked conditionally the Berlin and Milan decrees, and in 1812 revoked them unconditionally, dating the revocation back one year. Meanwhile, an aggressive element had risen to prominence in the councils of the Republican Party. Henry Clay, of Kentucky, was Speaker of the House, and John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, on the floor of the House was the leader of the majority. Under the impulse of these two brilliant and impetuous spirits, the party in power became transformed into a war party. Acts were passed to enlist soldiers, to organize the militia, to enlarge the navy, and to prepare in every way for war. The adoption of a war policy was urged upon the President, who was himself reluctant to adopt it. England having refused to modify her policy toward neutrals, an embargo upon all American shipping was proclaimed for sixty days as a preliminary to the opening of hostilities; and on June 1st Madison sent a message to Congress in which, after reviewing the American grievances against England, he recommended a formal declaration of war. The chief grounds for this action, as given by Madison, were the impressment of American seamen, the extension of the right of search to United States war vessels, the ‘paper blockades’ established by the British Orders in Council, and the alleged efforts of Great Britain to persuade the Northwestern Indians to attack the Americans. On the 18th Congress formally declared war. Five days later, and before the declaration reached England, the British Government withdrew its objectionable Orders in Council, but although attempts were then made to restore peace, reconciliation at that time was impossible. The disparity in power between the United States and Great Britain at this time was enormous, and except that the latter was still engaged in her conflict with Napoleon, a declaration of war would have seemed little less than foolhardy. In 1810 the population of the United States was only about 7,250,000, while that of Great Britain was fully 18,500,000. Great Britain, moreover, had vastly superior resources at her disposal, was organized for war, while the United States was not, and, besides having a large and highly disciplined army, was the acknowledged mistress of the seas. In general, the war went against the Americans on land, though the British were decisively repulsed at New Orleans; and the warfare on sea demonstrated the superiority, vessel for vessel, of the American to the British navy. Gradually, however, by reason of her vastly larger fleet, Great Britain defeated the American vessels in detail or drove them under the shelter of forts. The American naval successes were, nevertheless, of such number and of such tactical importance as to add greatly to the standing of the United States as a naval power. Congress had voted to raise 25,000 enlisted soldiers, 50,000 volunteers, and 100,000 militia. General William Hull with 2000 men at Detroit invaded Canada, but on being met by a small force of British and Indians under General Brock, recrossed the river, and on August 16th surrendered at Detroit without resistance. A second invasion of Canada was made in October, 1812, near Niagara Falls, by General Van Rensselaer. One thousand American militia stormed the heights of Queenstown, and the British general, Brock, was killed, but reinforcements arriving, the heights were retaken, and the Americans were defeated with great loss, some of them surrendering. Some of the militia refused to cross into Canada, upon the ground that the Government had no right to send the militia across the frontier. The Federalist Party, opposed to the war, defended the doctrine, and General Van Rensselaer resigned in disgust. American disasters on the land were, however, compensated for by victories at sea. On August 10th the United States frigate Constitution (q.v.) captured the British frigate Guerrière; on October 18th the Wasp (American) took the Frolic (British); on October 25th the United States captured the Macedonian; and on December 29th the Constitution took the Java. The Americans, in most cases, had the larger ships and heavier ordnance; but the immense disparity in the losses showed also superior seamanship and gunnery. American privateers, furthermore, took during the war, it is estimated, 300 British vessels and 3000 prisoners.
In May, 1812, Madison had been renominated for the Presidency, with Elbridge Gerry, of Massachusetts, as the Republican candidate for Vice-President. In the ensuing election Madison defeated De Witt Clinton by an electoral vote of 127 to 89, while Gerry defeated Jared Ingersoll by an electoral vote of 131 to 86.
In April, 1813, an American army of 1700 men under General Henry Dearborn captured York, now Toronto, and Dearborn having been relieved, Generals Wilkinson and Hampton undertook to capture Montreal, but met with no success. An attempt of the British general, Prevost, on Sackett's Harbor in May was repulsed; the British squadron on Lake Erie, consisting of 6 vessels
