of South Carolina. Commissioners were sent by South Carolina to Washington to arrange for a transfer to the State of United States property lying therein, and for a division of the national debt, but were not officially received. During all this time great efforts were made, but without result, to effect compromises of the difficulties. See Crittenden Compromise; Peace Congress.
Meanwhile, to the vacillation and incompetence of the President the prompt and vigorous action of the Southern leaders formed a striking contrast. By their direction, armed forces were rapidly organized, United States arsenals and arms were seized, and batteries were planted for the reduction of such forts as threatened a firm resistance. In the last months, however, Buchanan's reorganized Cabinet showed a much more determined front.
Among the events of Buchanan's administration were the '‘Mormon Rebellion’' of 1857-58 (see Mormons; Mountain Meadows Massacre), the disastrous financial panic of 1857, the discovery of silver and petroleum in the United States, the Congressional investigation of President Buchanan's connection with the Lecompton Bill (see Covode Investigation), and the famous debates between Lincoln and Douglas. See Lincoln, Abraham.
XIX. and XX. Administration of Abraham Lincoln (1861-65) and of Andrew Johnson (1865-69). Cabinet.—Secretary of State, William H. Seward, New York, March 5, 1861. Secretary of the Treasury, S. P. Chase, Ohio, March 5, 1861; W. P. Fessenden, Maine, July 1, 1864; Hugh McCulloch, Indiana, March 7, 1865. Secretary of War, Simon Cameron, Pennsylvania, March 5, 1861; Edwin M. Stanton, Pennsylvania, January 15, 1862; U. S. Grant (ad interim), August 12, 1867; Edwin M. Stanton (reinstated), January 14, 1868; J. M. Schofield, New York, May 28, 1868. Secretary of the Navy, Gideon Welles, Connecticut, March 5, 1861. Secretary of the Interior, Caleb P. Smith, March 5, 1861; John P. Usher, Indiana, January 8, 1863; James Harlan, Iowa, May 15, 1865; O. H. Browning, Illinois, July 27, 1866. Attorney-General, Edward Bates, Missouri, March 5, 1861; Titian J. Coffee, June 22, 1863; James Speed, Kentucky, December 2, 1864; Henry Stanbery, Ohio, July 23, 1866; William M. Evarts, New York, July 15, 1868. Postmaster-General, Montgomery Blair, Maryland, March 5, 1861; William Dennison, Ohio, September 24, 1864; Alexander W. Randall, Wisconsin, July 25, 1866.
On March 4, 1861, President Lincoln was inaugurated at Washington. In his inaugural address, he said: “I have no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with the institution of slavery in the States where it exists. I believe that I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so.” He also said, however: “The Union of these States is perpetual,” and “No State upon its own mere motion can lawfully get out of the Union.” The tension at the time was extreme, and was not lessened by the vigorous efforts at conciliation which marked the first month of his administration: and the feelings of the whole Northern people were inflamed by the bombardment April 12th-13th and the enforced surrender on April 14th of Fort Sumter, in Charleston Harbor. (See Fort Sumter.) On April 15th President Lincoln called for 75,000 three months' volunteers, large numbers of whom were in a few days marching to the defense of Washington. After the battle of Bull Run on July 21st (see Bill Run, First Battle of), Congress voted to call out 500,000 men.
On January 1, 1862, the United States had about 576,000 men in the field, and the Confederates had about 350,000. For an account of the military operations, see Civil War and separate articles on the various battles; and for an account of the Confederacy, see Confederate States of America.
On July 1, 1862, the President called for 300,000 three years' men, and on August 4th for 300,000 nine months' militia for the Federal Army. The United States Congress passed an act on August 6, 1861, freeing all slaves used by Confederates in military operations in the Confederacy; in April, 1862, purchased and emancipated all slaves in the District of Columbia; and on June 9, 1862, abolished slavery throughout the public domain. On January 1, 1863, President Lincoln issued a proclamation in pursuance of a prior proclamation issued on September 22, 1862, after the battle of Antietam (q.v.), declaring the freedom of all the slaves in the rebellious States. (See Emancipation Proclamation.) The suspension of the writ of habeas corpus (q.v.), the frequent seizure of newspapers, the dispersion of public meetings, and the imprisonment without trial of opponents of the Government of the North, were generally recognized as essential to the security of the nation, although the introduction of such practices gave rise to sharp criticism of the Administration and furnished the opponents of its policy with ample opportunity for partisan attacks. (See Vallandigham, C. L.; and Milligan, ex parte.) The unanimity of the North was also somewhat affected by great peace-meetings, while the disturbed state of the public feeling was increased by the terrible draft riots in New York, in July, 1863. (See Draft Riots in New York.) Business conditions became unstable, as many banks had been forced to suspend specie payments, the paper money of the United States having largely depreciated. Nevertheless, the strength of the Government was not seriously impaired, the appropriations of Congress in 1863 amounting to $972,000,000, The Confederates were cut off from all foreign aid, except such as could come to them through the blockade, and their own resources, both of men and material, gradually became exhausted. The Southern railways had been in large measure destroyed or seized by the Federal troops, and it became difficult to transport supplies and to feed armies, while the North had the additional advantage of command of the sea and access to foreign markets.
In January, 1864, the United States had nearly 975,000 men raised and provided for; the entire Confederate forces probably numbered about 470,000. On April 9, 1865, the main Confederate army, under General Lee, surrendered to General Grant at Appomattox Court-House. On April 26th General Johnston surrendered to General Sherman in North Carolina; and with the surrender of Kirby Smith in Texas, on May 26th, the war was over.
