UNIVERSITY. 741 UNIVERSITY. and ten Roman Catholic. Half of each group has ceased to exist or continue merely as theolog- ical faculties under the control of the Church. These foundations were due for the most y.ivt to the territorial divisions caused by the relifjious dissensions, and throughout the period religious interest dominated all the universities, old and new. Consequently the influence, the spirit of the teaching, the manner of life was much more re- stricted during this period than in any other. The theological studies dominated. Toward the close of this period the universities of Germany sank to the lowest level of inlluence and im- portance, nor was the character of the work much higher. The court schools and circles of learning outshone the universities themselves. The new era of the eighteenth century was ushered in by the foundation of Halle (1093) and GiJttingen (1737). These two institutions marked the recovery from the stagnation of the seventeenth century. Halle was established in the interest of Lutheranism to combat some of the religious tendencies of the time, but soon outgrew the bounds originally set for it, especially under the influence of the famous Thomasius and Francke. Thomasius was the first to abandon the use of Latin for the German in the lecture room, and his example was soon followed to a greater or lesser extent throughout Germany. A further characteristic of this period was the dom- inance of the new rationalistic philosophy over the old scholasticism. The new philosophy recog- nized no bounds of authority, and the spirit of in- quiry now came to be the dominant spirit of the universities. Instead of the merely formal study of the ancient classics, the various branches of philology' were now recognized and pursied. The critical study of history also began. Halle and Gcittingen dominate the eighteenth century and are recognized as the first universities of the modern type. The present period, in which the scientific spirit of the nineteenth century is preeminent, opened after a period of upheaval consequent upon the Napoleonic wars. Nine of the old universities were su]ipressed and four combined with others. One of the measures adopted by the Prussian Government was the reformation of existing uni- versities in the direction of greater freedom of thought, and the founding of the new University of Berlin in 1809. The influence of Berlin on other (Jerman universities has been paramount. Many antiquated and useless features have been abandoned and during the past century professor- ships in every branch of learning were established. The University of Bonn was founded in 1818 and has rapidly gained preeminence, especially in phi- losophy and pliilolngy. At present the German universities are .strict- ly State institutions and are subject to the 'Min- ister of Ecclesiastical, Educational, and Jtcdical Aft'airs' of the respective States in which each is situated. Each, however, enjoys a high degree of autonomy and their constitutions are essentially republican. The internal administration of the university is in the hands of a rector, or, in case this title is borne by the sovereign, a pro- rector, a dean of each faculty, the senatus academicus, and the qiurstor or treasurer. The discipline of the university over its students is maintained by means of a 'I'niversity Court,' composed of certain members of the faculty of law. The penalties inflicted are reprimands, fines, imprisonment in the University Career, deprivation of credit, suspension, and expulsion, till' two latter holding good not only for the one Init for all (Jerman luiivcrsitics. .sidc from this the university exercises no control over its stu- dents, and there are, save in a few exceptional instances, no such institutions as colleges, halls, or dormitories. The term faculty signifies cither (1) the teaching body, especially the full profes- sors, or (2) the teachers and students in one of the great divisions of the university. At every German university there are faculties of law, medicine, philosophy, and cither Protestant or Roman Catholic theologj'. In a few, such as Munich and Strassburg, an additional faculty in political science or in natural scien<'e has been organized. The teaching body of a German uni- versity consists of ( 1 ) full professors {ordinurii, ordentliehe Professoren) , (2) extraordinary pro- fessors (ausserordentliche) , and (3) Privatdocen- ten. To these are to he added (-1) readers (lec- toren ) , appointed to give practical instruction in modern languages; there are also (5) masters of dancing, fencing, riding, etc., whose connection with the university is often merely nominal. The full professors are the occupants of chairs in- tended to be permanent foundations; they alone sit in the Senatus Academicus, and are alone eligible to the rectorship and deanships. The extraordinary profes.sors are either younger men, to whom the professorial title has been granted by the Government for distinguished work, or they represent subjects in which no permanent chairs have been established ; sometimes both conditions are exemplified in the same individual. The Privatdocenten are graduates who receive permission to lecture, but receive no othcial ap- pointment and depend for their remuneration for the most part upon fees received from students. They are not subject to the authority of the pro- fessors, but from them are selected the ausser- ordentUehe Professoren. The only degrees given b_v the German univer- sities at the present day are those of doctor and licentiate ; the latter is given only in theology. The university degrees do not, as such, admit the re- cipient to the exercise of his profession in the Church, law, medicine, or the higher teaching service; for this, the passing of the State exami- nation is necessary. For a list of German, Austrian, and Swiss uni- versities, see articles on the respective countries. The principal universities are described in sep- arate articles. IiALi..'v UNIVERSITIE.S. During the Middle Ages the university movement had its origin and received its greatest impulse from Italy. The importance of ]5oloana in this respect has been discussed under the section on Mrdiwial Universities. Again, during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the Italian universities were the most important centres in all Europe of the new humanistic studies. While the new methods and subjects of study introduced by these Italian universities produced a complete academic revo- lution and paved the way for the Reformation, they possessed a fortunate imnumity from dis- sensions like those which distracted the centres of learning in Northern Europe, especially Ger- many. The status of the professors in Italy was higher than in any other country. Never-
