voss. 226 VOTER. moved to Jena, and in 1S05 was made professor of classical literature at Heidelberg. Here he translated Horace. Hesiod, Theocritus, Bion, Jloschus. and Tibullus, and attempted Shake- speare, Ovid, and Aristophanes with less success. Of his original poems in four volumes ( 1S25) the idyl Luise (1795) is alone noteworthy. His later works, 11'ie ward Fritz HUAherg ein Unfreier (1819) and Aiitisiiniholik (1824-26), are pams- taking and dignified, but dreary. Voss's Let- ters are in three volumes (Halberstadt, 1829- 33). Consult the Lices by Paulus (Heidelberg. 1826) and Herbst (Leipzig, 1S72-TG) ; also Prutz, Dcr GiittitHjer Dichterliund (Leipzig, 1841). VOSS, RiCHAKD (ISol— ). A German author, born at Neugrape. in Pommerania. He studied at Jena and Munich, and in 1884 became librari- an of the Wartburg. His best known dramas are : Pater Modestus. dealing with the problem of relig- ion (1882) ; Alexandra (1886) ; Brigitta (1887) ; Ena, patterned after Ibsen's Xora (1889); Schuldig (1890) ; Zicischen zicei Hcrzen (1896) ; and Die Fatrizieriii, a classical drama, which won the Schiller prize in 1S96. His novels in- clude: Die Subiiicriii. remarkable for its beauti- ful descriptions of Italian country (1890) ; Villa Falconieri. the story of a successful poet who lost confidence in his powers (1896) ; Ainata, a story of Rome in Kero's time (1901); and Romisches Fieher (1902). VOSTOKOFF, vGs-to'kof, Alex. der Ciiris- TOFOROViTCii (1781-1864). A Russian philolo- gist. He was born in the island of Osel. in the Gulf of Riga, studied architecture in the Saint Petersburg Academy of Arts, and then devoted himself to philology and paleography. In 1808 he published his preliminary study of Slavic linguistics; in 1815 became assistant in the de- partment of manuscripts in the Imperial Library ; and in 1820 was chosen member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Vostokoff juiblished in 1820 Bazfiiddenii/e o slari/anskoin yazyke, a treatise which outlined the development of language, the nature of the pre-Slavic dialect, and the peculi- arities of the Old Church Slavic; a descriptive catalogue of Slavic manuscripts (1842) ; and a lexicon (1801) and a grammar (180.3) of the Old Church Slavic. His Russian Grammar appeared first in 1831, readied a twelfth edition in 1874, and is the basis of the modern scientific treat- ment of the subject. Vostokoff contributed to the great lexicon of the Russian Academy ( 1847) . His minor works were edited by Sresnevsky in 186.5. VOTE (from Lat. vofum, wish, engagement, vow, from vovcrc, to wish, promise, dedicate, vow). A formal declaration or expression of the will or preference of a person in regard to a question or issue submitted to him together ■with others for action. The term is perhaps most commonly applied to the means whereby an elector or citizen expresses his choice of candi- dates for piblic offices and to the expressions of assent or dissent of legislators to the enactment of proposed measures, but is also correctly em- ployed to describe the voice of a member of a cor- poration or any association of individuals in declaring his will as to any question submitted. The word is also used collectively to include the combined action of a number of individuals upon a given question. Various methods of voting have been devised, but practically only two are in use: by liiUot (q.v.), and viva voee, by voice. Where "the voting is by ballot one or more judges must be appointed to canvass or count the bal- lots which have been deposited in some recep- tacle by the voters. Where the more simple method of having each voter announce his will orally is adopted, a secretary is usually appoint- ed to note the name and choice of eveiy one en- titled to vote. In all political elections and legislative bodies in the L'nited States every person entitled to vote must do so personally. However, in cor- porations and associations voting by proxy is usually permitted. In order to secure a fair election and free- dom of choice on- the part of the voters, various. means of voting have been devised. The Aus- tralian system, which practically insures abso- lute secrecy, is the most in favor. This system prohibits any marking of ballots for identifica- tion, and as all the tickets which ma^' be voted are printed upon one sheet of paper and marked and folded in a closed booth, there is perhaps no method of determining absolutely how a per- son votes. See Ballot; Electob.^l Reform. VOTER. One entitled to a vote or voice ia the determination of a question before a number of individuals. The term implies some qualifi- cation. For example, to entitle a person to vote for candidates for public office he must be a citizen of the jurisdiction in which the election is held, and, of course, no one can vote on any question before a private corporation or asso- ciation unless he is a member. The character of the qualifications required of voters in political elections varies somewhat in the different States. However, there are cer- tain general requirements in all States, which may be summarized as follows: (1) Citizenship; (2) residence for a certain time in the State, county, and election district; (3) that the voter shall have attained his majority (21 years) ; (4) that the voter shall be of sound mind: (5) that he shall not be a convicted felon under sen- tence. Registration is also required in many States. Some of the States have established cither property or educational qualifications. This has been done in most of the Southern States in order to exclude the negro vote. As these tests might bar some of the 'poor whites,' a jirovision that any one whose father or grand- father was a soldier in the Confederate --Vrmy has been introduced. These ingenious devices are rendered necessary by the Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which provides that the "right of citizens to vote shall not be abridged b.y the LTnited States or any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." Except for this jirovision the States have power to fix their own qualifications. .■. few States permit women to vote. The election laws of most States contain pro- visions under which a person who suspects that another is illegally attempting to vote may chal- lenge the latter's right to do so. Under such circumstances the person challenged is generally permitted to 'swear in' his vote, that is. state under oath that he possesses the qualification which the challenger denies, and his vote is counted subject to rejection later if the courts-
