denied that the feathered kinds have any diaphragm. The difficulty is resolved by admitting that birds are not entirely destitute of a kind of diaphragm, inasmuch as they have a delicate membrane in the place of this septum, which Aristotle calls a cincture and septum. Still they have no diaphragm that is muscular, and that might aid respiration, like other animals. But, indeed, Aristotle did not know the muscles."
Thus is the prince of philosophers accused and excused in the same breath, his challenger being himself not free from error; because it is certain that Aristotle both knew the muscles, as I have elsewhere shown, and the membranes, which in birds are not only situated transversely in the direction of the cincture of the body, but extended in the line of the longitudinal direction of the belly, supplying the place of the diaphragm [of quadrupeds] and being subservient to respiration, as I have shown in the clearest manner in my disquisitions on the Respiration of Animals. And, passing over other particulars at this time, I shall only direct attention to the fact, that birds breathe with great freedom, and in singing also modulate their voice in the most admirable manner, their lungs all the while being so closely connected with their sides and ribs, that they can neither be dilated and rise, nor suffer contraction in any considerable degree.
The bronchia or ends of the trachea in birds, moreover, are perforate, and open into the abdomen (and this is an observation which I do not remember to have met with elsewhere), so that the air inspired is received into and stored up within the cells or cavities formed by the membranes mentioned above. In the same manner as fishes and serpents draw air into ample bladders situated in the abdomen, and there store it up, by which they are thought to swim more lightly; and as frogs and toads, when in the height of summer they respire more vigorously assume more than the usual quantity of air into their vesicular lungs, (whence they acquire so large a size,) which they afterwards freely expire, croaking all the while; so in the feathered tribes are the lungs rather the route and passage for respiration than its adequate instrument.
Now, had Fabricius seen this, he would never have denied that these membranes (with the assistance of the abdominal muscles at all events,) could subserve respiration and perform
