Plant Indicators: the Relation of Plant Communities to Process and Practice
PLANT INDICATORS
THE RELATION OF PLANT COMMUNITIES TO PROCESS AND PRACTICE
By Frederic E. Clements
1
Concept and History[edit]
Historical[edit]
Agricultural Indicators[edit]
- Hilgard, 1906 8
- Clements, 1910 9
- Shantz, 1911 10
- Kearney, Briggs, Shantz, McLane, and Piemeisel, 1914 11
- Shantz and Piemeisel, 1917 12
- Shantz and Aldous, 1917 13
- Weaver, 1919 13
Forest Indicators[edit]
- Cajander, 1909 14
- Clements, 1910 14
- Pearson. 1913-1914 15
- Zon, 1915 16
- Hole and Singh, 1916 16
- Korstian, 1917 17
Grazing Indicators[edit]
- Smith, 1899 19
- Bentley. 1902 20
- Griffiths, 1901, 1904, 1907, 1910, 1915.... 21
- Sampson, 1908, 1909, 1913, 1914 22
- Jardine, 1908, 1909, 1910, 1913 23
- Wooton, 1915, 1916 23
- Jardine and Hurtt. 1917 24
- Jardine and Anderson, 1919 24
- Sarvis, 1919 25
Chresard and Water Requirement Studies[edit]
- Significance 26
- The chresard 26
- Gain, 1895 26
- Kihlmann, 1890 27
- Briggs and Shantz, 1912 27
- The water requirement 28
Concept[edit]
- General 28
- Animals as indicators 29
- Plant and community 29
- Sequences 30
- Direct and indirect sequences 31
- Direction of indication 32
- Scope 32
- Materials 33
- Basing studies 34
Bases and Criteria[edit]
Bases and Methods of Determination[edit]
- Fundamental relations 35
The Physical Basis[edit]
- Direct and indirect factors 36
- Controlling and limiting factors 36
- Climatic and edaphic factors 37
- Climates and habitats 38
- Variation of climate and habitat 39
- Inversion of factors 40
- Measurement of habitats 42
The Physiological Basis[edit]
- Kinds of response 43
- Effect of habit 43
- Individuality in response 44
- Effect of extreme conditions 44
- Phytometers 46
The Associational Basis[edit]
- Nature of association 47
- Dominants 47
- Equivalence of dominants 48
- Absence of dominants 49
- Subdominants 50
- Secondary species 51
- Plant and animal association 51
The Successional Basis[edit]
- Scope 51
- Sequence of indicators 52
- Major successions as indicators 53
The Experimental Basis[edit]
- Nature 53
- Essentials 54
Indicator Criteria[edit]
- Nature and kinds of criteria 55
- Species and genera 65
Life-Forms.[edit]
- History 57
- Pound and Clements, 1898-1900 57
- Raunkiaer, 1905 58
- Warming. 1908 69
- Drude. 1913 60
- Comparison of the systems 62
- Vegetation-forms 62
- Indicator significance of vegetation-forms 63
Habitat-Forms[edit]
- Concept and history 64
- Warming's system 64
- Modifications of Warming's system 65
- Indicator value 66
- Ecads 67
Growth-Forms[edit]
- Nature 68
- Kinds 69
- Indicator relations 69
- Standard plants for growth correlations 70
- Competition-forms 71
Communities as Indicators[edit]
- Value 72
- Kinds of communities 72
- Community structures 73
- Alternes 73
- Layers 74
- Aspects 75
Kinds of Indicators[edit]
- Basis of distinction 76
Factor Indicators[edit]
- Basis and kinds 76
- Quantitative sequences 77
- Climatic and edaphic indicators 77
- Water indicators 78
- Light indicators 79
- Temperature indicators 81
- Indicators of solutes 83
- Saline indicators 83
- Lime indicators 84
- Aeration indicators 85
- Indicators of factor-complexes 88
- Soil indicators 88
- Slope-exposure indicators 88
- Altitude indicators 89
- Organism indicators 90
Process Indicators[edit]
- Nature 91
- Kinds 91
- Fire indicators 92
- Lumbering indicators 93
- Cultivation indicators 93
- Grazing indicators 94
- Indicators of irrigation and drainage 95
- Construction indicators 96
- Physiographic indicators 97
- Climatic indicators 97
Practice Indicators[edit]
- Nature and kinds 98
Paleic Indicators[edit]
- Paleo-ecology 99
- Nature of paleic indicators 100
- Kinds 101
- Paleic indicators of climates and cycles 103
- Paleic indicators of succession 103
- Plant indicators of animals 104
- Animal indicators of plants 104
Climax Formations Of Western North America[edit]
- Nature 105
- Tests of a climax 105
- Structure and development 106
- Societies 107
- Names of climax communities 109
- Seral communities 109
- Indicator significance of climax formations 111
- Significance of succession 111
- Indicator value of disturbed areas 112
- Summary of the climax formations 113
The Grassland Climax[edit]
Stipa-Bouteloua Formation[edit]
- General relations 114
- Unity of the grassland 116
- Correlation with climate 116
- Use of weather records 116
- Relationship of associations 118
- Floristic relations 119
- Ecological relations 120
- Subdominants 120
- Developmental relations 121
The True Prairie[edit]
Stipa-Koeleria Association[edit]
- Extent 121
- Factor relations 123
- Sequence of dominants 123
Societies[edit]
- Nature 125
- Control of dominants 125
- Relation to consociation 126
- Origin 126
- Mixed societies 127
- Aspects 127
- Zones and alternes 128
- Studies of prairie societies 129
Clans[edit]
- Vernal clans 131
- Estival clans 131
- Serotinal clans 131
The Subclimax Prairie[edit]
Andropogon Associes[edit]
- Nature 131
- Range 132
- Factor relations 133
- Sequence 133
- Grouping 134
Societies and Clans[edit]
The Mixed Prairie[edit]
Stipa-Borteloua Association[edit]
- Nature 135
- Effect of grazing and climatic cycles 135
- Range 136
- Grouping 137
- Sequence of dominants 138
Societies of the Mixed Prairie[edit]
- Prevernal societies 139
- Vernal societies 139
- Estival societies 139
- Serotinal societies 139
The Short-Grass Plains[edit]
Bulbilis-Bouteloua Association[edit]
- Nature 139
- Range 140
- Grouping of dominants 141
- Factor relations 142
- Sequence of dominants 142
Societies[edit]
- Prevernal societies 143
- Vernal societies 143
- Estival societies 143
- Serotinal societies 144
Clans[edit]
- Prevernal clans 144
- Vernal clans 144
- Estival clans 144
- Serotinal clans 144
The Desert Plains[edit]
Aristida-Bouteloua Association[edit]
- Nature 144
- Range 145
- Rank of dominants 146
- Grouping of dominants 146
- Sequence of dominants 147
Societies[edit]
- Vernal societies 148
- Estival societies 148
- Serotinal societies 149
Clans[edit]
The Bunch-Grass Prairie[edit]
Agropyrum-Stipa Association[edit]
- Nature 149
- Range 149
- Factor relations and sequence 151
Societies[edit]
- Prevernal societies 152
- Vernal societies 152
- Estival societies 152
- Serotinal societies 152
Clans[edit]
- Prevernal clans 152
- Vernal clans 152
- Estival clans 152
- Serotinal clans 152
The Sagebrush Climax[edit]
Atriplex-Artemisia Formation[edit]
- Nature 152
- Unity of the formation 153
- Range 154
- Subclimax sagebrush 155
- Associations 156
The Basin Sagebrush[edit]
Atriplex-Artemisia Association[edit]
- Range 156
- Rank and grouping 157
- Correlations 158
- Successional sequence 159
Societies[edit]
- Grass communities appearing as societies 160
- Vernal societies 160
- Estival societies 160
- Serotinal societies 160
The Coastal Sagebrush[edit]
Salvia-Artemisia Association[edit]
- Range 160
The Desert Scrub Climax[edit]
Larrea-Prosopis Formation[edit]
- Nature 162
- Range 163
- Unity of the formation 163
- Structure of the formation 165
Summary of Dominants[edit]
- Associations 166
- Relation to other formations 167
The Eastern Desert Scrub[edit]
Larrea-Flourensia Association[edit]
- Correlations and sequence 168
Societies[edit]
The Western Desert Scrub[edit]
Larrea-Franseria Association[edit]
- Nature 170
- Extent 171
- Structure 172
- Groupings 172
- Factor relations 173
- Successional relations 174
- Root relations 176
Societies and Clans[edit]
The Chaparrel Climax[edit]
Quercus-Ceanothus Formation[edit]
- Nature 177
- Unity of the chaparral formation 178
- Climatic relations 178
- Origin and succession 179
- Range and extent 180
- Structure of the formation 181
- Grouping of dominants 181
- Associations 183
The Petran Chaparral[edit]
Cercocarpus-Quercus Assoeiaiion[edit]
- Nature and extent 183
- Contacts 184
- Groupings 185
- Equivalence of dominants 186
Societies[edit]
- Vernal societies 187
- Estival societies 187
- Serotinal societies 187
The Subclimax Chapparral[edit]
Rhus-Quercus Associes.[edit]
- Nature 187
- Extent and contacts 188
- Groupings 189
- Relations of the dominants 189
Societies[edit]
The Coastal Chapparal[edit]
Adenostoma-Ceanothus Association[edit]
- Nature and extent 190
- Groupings 191
- Factor and seral relations 192
Societies[edit]
- Prevernal societies 193
- Vernal societies 193
- Estival societies 193
The Woodland Climax[edit]
Pinus-Juniperus Formation[edit]
- Nature 193
- Range and extent 194
- Unity of the formation 195
- Structure of the formation 196
- Contacts 197
The Pinon-Cedar Woodland[edit]
Pinus-Juniperus Association[edit]
- Nature and extent 197
Societies[edit]
- Shade societies 199
The Oak-Cedar Woodland[edit]
Quercus-Juniperus Aasociation[edit]
- Nature and extent 200
- Factor relations 201
Societies[edit]
- Shade societies 202
The Pine-Oak Woodland[edit]
Pinus-Quercus Aaaociation[edit]
- Nature and extent 202
The Montane Forest Climax[edit]
Pinus-Pseudotsuga Formation[edit]
- Nature 205
- Extent 205
- Unity of the formation 205
- Relationship and contacts 206
- Associations 207
The Petran Montane Forest[edit]
Pinus-Pseudotsuga Aaaociation[edit]
- Extent 207
- Groupings 208
- Factor relations 209
- Seral relations 209
Societies and Clans[edit]
The Sierra Montane Forest[edit]
Pinus Association[edit]
- Extent 211
- Groupings 212
- Factor and sersd relations 212
Societies[edit]
- Shrubs 213
- Herbs 214
The Coast Forest Climax[edit]
Thuja-Tsuga Formation[edit]
- Nature 214
- Extent 214
- Unity 215
- Relationship and contacts 215
- Associations 216
The Cedar-Hemlock Forest[edit]
Thuja-Tsuga Association[edit]
- Nature and extent 217
- Groupings 217
- Factor and seral relations 218
Societies[edit]
- Shrubs 219
- Herbs 219
The Larch-Pine Forest[edit]
Larix-Pinus Association[edit]
- Nature and extent 219
- Groupings 220
- Factor and serai relations 220
Societies[edit]
The Subalpine Forest Climax[edit]
Picea-Abies Formation[edit]
- Nature 222
- Extent 222
- Unity 222
- Relationship and contacts 223
- Associations 224
The Petran Subalpine Forest[edit]
Picea-Abies Association[edit]
- Extent 224
- Groupings 225
- Factor and seral relations 225
====Societies====
The Sierran Subalpine Forest[edit]
Pinus-Tsuga Association[edit]
- Extent 226
- Groupings 227
- Factor and serai relations 228
Societies[edit]
The Alpine Meadow Climax[edit]
Carex-Poa Formation[edit]
- Nature 228
- Extent 229
- Unity 229
- Relationship and contacts 230
- Associations 231
The Petran Alpine Meadow[edit]
Carex-Poa Association[edit]
- Extent 232
- Dominants.
- Groupings 232
- Factor and seral relations 233
Societies[edit]
- Vernal societies 234
- Estival societies 234
The Sierran Alpine Meadow[edit]
Carex-Agrostis Association[edit]
- Extent 234
Dominants[edit]
- Groupings 235
- Factor and seral relations 235
Societies[edit]
Agricultural Indicators[edit]
- General relations 237
Land Classification[edit]
- Nature 237
- Relation to practices 238
- Proposed bases of classification 238
- The indicator method of land classification 240
- Use of climax indicators 240
- Soil indicators 241
- Shantz's results 242
A System of Land Classification[edit]
- Bases 245
- Classification and use 245
- Methods 246
Climatic Cycles[edit]
- Nature 247
- The 11-year cycle 247
- Evidences 248
- Periods of drought 250
- Recurrence of drought periods 251
- Significance of the sun-spot cycle 252
- Prediction of drought periods 253
- Utilization of cycles 254
Farming Indicators[edit]
- Types of farming 255
- Relation of types of farming to indicators 255
- Edaphic indicators of types of farming 256
Crop Indicators[edit]
- Nature and kinds 257
- Climatic indicators of the types of crops 258
- Climatic indicators of kinds of crops 259
- Climatic indicators of varieties 259
- Life zones and crop zones 260
- Edaphic indicators of crops and methods 261
- Indicators of native or ruderal forage crops 262
Agricultural Practice and Climatic Cycles[edit]
- Cycles of production 262
- The excess-deficit balance 264
- Anticipation of cycles 266
Grazing Indicators[edit]
- Kinds of grazing 270
Grazing Types[edit]
- Kinds of grazing indicators 271
- Significance of climax types 272
- Formations as indicators 273
- Associations as indicators 273
- Consociations as indicators 274
- Local grazing types 275
- Savannah as an indicator 276
- Kinds of savannah 278
- Savannah in relation to fire and grazing 279
- Significance of seral types 279
- Prisere communities as indicators 280
- Subsere communities as indicators 282
- Fire indicators and grazing 283
Carrying Capacity[edit]
- Nature and significance 284
- Determining factors 284
- Relation to communities and dominants 285
- Nutrition content 286
- Relation to climatic cycles 292
- Relation to rodents 293
- Relation to herd and management. 293
- Measurement of carrying capacity 294
- Present and potential carrying capacity 295
Overgrazing[edit]
- Nature 295
- Causes 297
- Indicators of Overgrazing 297
- Societies as indicators 298
- Halfshrubs as indicators 299
- Cacti as indicators 300
- Shrubs as indicators 300
- Annuals as indicators 301
- Prairie and plains indicators 302
- Desert plains indicators 302
- Bunch-grass prairie indicators 303
- Great Basin indicators 304
- Overgrazing in the past 304
- Succession and cycles 307
- Relation of tall-grasses and short-grasses 308
- Overgrazing cycles 309
Range Improvement[edit]
- History 310
- Prerequistes 311
- Essential factors 312
- Proper stocking 312
- Rotation grazing 314
- Rodent eradication 316
- Eradication of poisonous plants 317
- Eradication of weeds and cacti 319
- Eradication of brush 320
- Manipulation of the range 321
- Plant introduction on the range 322
- Prerequisites for seeding and planting 324
- New investigations 326
- Forage development 327
- Water development 328
- Herd management 329
Essentials of a Grazing Policy[edit]
- A proper land system 330
- Essentials 330
- The Kent grazing bill 331
- Classification and range surveys 334
- Production cycles 334
- Ranch management surveys 335
Forest Indicators[edit]
- Nature 336
- Kinds of indicators 336
Forest Types[edit]
- Bases 337
- Comparison of views 342
- Forest sites 343
- Succession as a basis 344
- Significance 345
Climatic and Edaphic Indicators[edit]
- Climatic indicators 345
- Edaphic indicators 348
- Water-content indicators 348
- Light indicators 349
- Site indicators 349
- Growth as an indicator 360
- Burn indicators 353
- Grazing indicators 355
- Cycle indicators 367
Planting Indicators[edit]
- Kinds 357
- Prerequisites for planting and sowing 358
- Use of climatic cycles 359
- Reforestation indicators 369
- Afforestation indicators 362
Bibliography 364[edit]
==Index 375==