in the arsenal. At Toulon the convicts remained (in chains) on the galleys, which were moored as hulks in the harbour. Shore prisons were, however, provided for them, known as bagnes, baths, a name given to such penal establishments first by the Italians (bagno), and said to have been derived from the prison at Constantinople situated close by or attached to the great baths there. The name galérien was still given to all convicts, though the galleys had been abandoned, and it was not till the French Revolution that the hated name with all it signified was changed to forçat. In Spain galera is still used for a criminal condemned to penal servitude.
A vivid account of the life of galley-slaves in France is given in Jean Marteilhes’s Memoirs of a Protestant, translated by Oliver Goldsmith (new edition, 1895), which describes the experiences of one of the Huguenots who suffered after the revocation of the edict of Nantes.
GALLIA CISALPINA (Lat. Cis, on this side, i.e. of the Alps),
in ancient geography, that portion of northern Italy north of
Liguria and Umbria and south of the Alps, which was inhabited
by various Celtic and other peoples, of whom the Celts were in
continual hostility to Rome. In early times it was bounded on
the S. by Liguria and the Aesis, in Caesar’s time by Liguria and
the Rubicon. After the Second Punic War (203 B.C.) these tribes
were severely punished by the Roman generals for the assistance
they had rendered to Hannibal. Sulla divided the district into
two parts; the region between the Aesis and the Rubicon was
made directly subject to the government at Rome, while the
northern portion was put under a distinct authority, probably
similar to the usual transmarine commands (see Mommsen,
Hist. of Rome, Eng. trans., bk. iv. c. 10).
For the early Celtic and other peoples and the later history of the district see Italy (ancient), and Rome: History, Ancient.
GALLIC ACID, trioxybenzoic acid (HO)3(3.4.5.)C6H2CO2H·H2O,
the acidum gallicum of pharmacy, a substance discovered by K.
W. Scheele; it occurs in the leaves of the bearberry, in pomegranate
root-bark, in tea, in gall-nuts to the extent of about 3%,
and in other vegetable productions. It may be prepared by keeping
moist and exposed to the air for from four to six weeks, at a
temperature of 20° to 25° C., a paste of powdered gall-nuts and
water, and removing from time to time the mould which forms
on its surface; the paste is then boiled with water, the hot
solution filtered, allowed to cool, the separated gallic acid drained,
and purified by dissolving in boiling water, recrystallization at
about 27° C., and washing of the crystals with ice-cold water.
The production of the acid appears to be due to the presence in
the galls of a ferment. Gallic acid is most readily obtained by
boiling the tannin procured from oak-galls by means of alcohol
and ether with weak solution of acids. It may also be produced
by heating an aqueous solution of di-iodosalicylic acid with
excess of alkaline carbonate, by acting on dibromosalicylic acid
with moist silver oxide, and by other methods. It crystallizes in
white or pale fawn-coloured acicular prisms or silky needles,
and is soluble in alcohol and ether, and in 100 parts of cold and
3 of boiling water; it is without odour and has an astringent
and an acid taste and reaction. It melts at about 200° C., and
at 210º to 215° it is resolved into carbon dioxide and pyrogallol,
C6H3(OH)3. With ferric salts its solution gives a deep blue
colour, and with ferrous salts, after exposure to the air, an insoluble,
blue-black, ferroso-ferric gallate. Bases of the alkali
metals give with it four series of salts; these are stable except
in alkaline solutions, in which they absorb oxygen and turn brown.
Solution of calcium bicarbonate becomes with gallic acid, on
exposure to the air, of a dark blue colour. Unlike tannic acid,
gallic acid does not precipitate albumen or salts of the alkaloids,
or, except when mixed with gum, gelatin. Salts of gold and silver
are reduced by it, slowly in cold, instantaneously in warm
solutions, hence its employment in photography. With phosphorus
oxychloride at 120° C. gallic acid yields tannic acid, and
with concentrated sulphuric acid at 100°, rufigallic acid, C14H8O8,
an anthracene derivative. Oxidizing agents, such as arsenic
acid, convert it into ellagic acid, C14H8O9 + H2O, probably a
fluorene derivative, a substance which occurs in gall-nuts, in the
external membrane of the episperm of the walnut, and probably
in many plants, and composes the “bezoar stones” found
in the intestines of Persian wild goats. Medicinally, gallic acid
has been, and is still, largely used as an astringent, styptic and
haemostatic. Gallic acid, however, does not coagulate albumen
and therefore possesses no local astringent action. So far is it
from being an haemostatic that, if perfused through living
blood-vessels, it actually dilates them. Its rapid neutralization
in the intestine renders it equally devoid of any remote
actions.
GALLICANISM, the collective name for various theories
maintaining that the church and king of France had ecclesiastical
rights of their own, independent and exclusive of the jurisdiction
of the pope. Gallicanism had two distinct sides, a constitutional
and a dogmatic, though both were generally held together, the
second serving as the logical basis of the first. And neither
is intelligible, except in relation to the rival theory of Ultramontanism
(q.v.). Dogmatic Gallicanism was concerned with
the question of ecclesiastical government. It maintained that
the church’s infallible authority was committed to pope and
bishops jointly. The pope decided in the first instance, but his
judgments must be tacitly or expressly confirmed by the bishops
before they had the force of law. This ancient theory survived
much longer in France than in other Catholic countries. Hence
the name of Gallican is loosely given to all its modern upholders,
whether of French nationality or not. Constitutional
Gallicanism dealt with the relation of church and state in France.
It began in the 13th century, as a protest against the theocratic
pretensions of the medieval popes. They claimed that they, as
vicars of Christ, had the right to interfere in the temporal concerns
of princes, and even to depose sovereigns of whom they
disapproved. Gallicanism answered that kings held their power
directly of God; hence their temporal concerns lay altogether
outside the jurisdiction of the pope. During the troubles of the
Reformation era, when the papal deposing power threatened to
become a reality, the Gallican theory became of great importance.
It was elaborated, and connected with dogmatic Gallicanism, by
the famous theologian, Edmond Richer (1559–1631), and finally
incorporated by Bossuet in a solemn Declaration of the French
Clergy, made in 1682. This document lays down: (1) that the
temporal sovereignty of kings is independent of the pope; (2)
that a general council is above the pope; (3) that the ancient
liberties of the Gallican Church are sacred; (4) that the infallible
teaching authority of the church belongs to pope and bishops
jointly. This declaration led to a violent quarrel with Rome,
and was officially withdrawn in 1693, though its doctrines continued
to be largely held. They were asserted in an extreme
form in the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790), which almost
severed connexion between France and the papacy. In 1802
Napoleon contented himself by embodying Bossuet’s declaration
textually in a statute. Long before his time, however, the issue
had been narrowed down to determining exactly how far the pope
should be allowed to interfere in French ecclesiastical affairs.
Down to the repeal of the Concordat in 1905 all French governments
continued to uphold two of the ancient “Gallican Liberties.”
The secular courts took cognizance of ecclesiastical affairs whenever
the law of the land was alleged to have been broken; and
papal bulls were not allowed to be published without the leave
of the state. (See also Febronianism.)
(St. C.)
GALLIENI, JOSEPH SIMON (1849– ), French soldier and
colonial administrator, was born at Saint-Béat, in the department
of Haute-Garonne, on the 24th of April 1849. He left the military
academy of Saint-Cyr in July 1870 as a second lieutenant in the
Marines, becoming lieutenant in 1873 and captain in 1878. He
saw service in the Franco-German War, and between 1877 and
1881 took an important part in the explorations and military
expeditions by which the French dominion was extended in the
basin of the upper Niger. He rendered a particularly valuable
service by obtaining, in March 1881, a treaty from Ahmadu,
almany of Segu, giving the French exclusive rights of commerce
on the upper Niger. For this he received the gold medal of the
Société de Géographie. From 1883 to 1886 Gallieni was stationed
in Martinique. On the 24th of June 1886 he attained the rank
