682 L I P_L I P drecls of vultures were circling round waiting to pick, while almost an equal number hopped awkwardly about on the ground within 50 or 60 yards of it, and the whole lion family walked quietly away, the lioness leading, and the lion, often turning his head to see that they were not followed, bringing up the rear." Though not strictly gregarious, lions appear to be sociable towards their own species, and often are found in small troops, sometimes consisting of a pair of old lions, with their nearly full-grown cubs, but occasionally of adults of the same sex ; and there seems to be good evidence that several lions will associate together for the purpose of hunting upon a preconcerted plan. As might be supposed, their natural ferocity and powerful armature are sometimes turned upon one another ; combats, often mortal, occur among male lions under the influence of jealousy; and Andersson relates an instance of a quarrel between a hungry lion and lioness over the carcase of an antelope which they had just killed, and which did not seem sufficient for the appetite of both, ending in the lion not only killing, but even devouring his mate. Old lions, whose teeth have become injured with constant wear, often become " man-eaters," finding their easiest means of obtaining a subsistence in lurking in the neighbourhood of villages, and dashing into the tents at night and carrying off one of the sleeping inmates. Lions differ from most of the smaller Felidoz in never climbing trees ; indeed, as mentioned before, they are rarely found in forests. With regard to the character of the lion, those who have had opportunities of observing it in its native haunts differ greatly. The exaggerated accounts of early writers as to its courage, nobility, and magnanimity have led to a reaction, which causes some modern authors to speak of it in language quite the reverse, and to accuse it of positive cowardice and all kinds of meanness. Livingstone goes so far as to say, " nothing that I ever learned of the lion could lead me to attribute to it either the ferocious or noble character ascribed to it elsewhere," and he adds that its roar is not distinguishable from that of the ostrich. Of course these different estimates depend to a great extent upon the particular standard of the writer, and also upon the circumstance that lions, like other animals, undoubtedly show considerable individual differences in character, and behave differently under varying circumstances. They are certainly not so reckless as to be entirely devoid of the instinct of self-preservation, and if one, perhaps satiated with a good meal the night before, unexpectedly disturbed in the day time, will occasionally retreat when confronted, even by an unarmed man, that is scarcely a reason for assigning cowardice as one of the characteristics of the species. The latest authority, Selous, while never denying the daring courage of the lion when hungry or provoked, and vindicating the awe-inspiring character of the roar of several lions in unison, when heard at close quarters, as the grandest sound in nature, says with regard to its outward aspect : "It has always appeared to me that the word majestic is singularly inapplicable to the lion in its wild state, as when seen by daylight he always has a stealthy furtive look that entirely does away with the idea of majesty. To look majestic a lion should hold his head high. This he seldom does. When walking he holds it low, lower than the line of his back, and it is only when he first becomes aware of the presence of man that he sometimes raises his head and takes a look at the intruder, usually lowering it imme diately, and trotting away with a growl. When at bay, standing with open mouth and glaring eyes, holding his head low between his shoulders, and keeping up a continuous low growling, twitching is tail the while from side to side, no animal can look more unpleasant than a lion; but there is then nothing majestic or noble in his appearance." Notwithstanding this evidently truthful description of the animal when seen under what maybe called unfavour able circumstances, no one with an eye for beauty can contemplate the form of a fine specimen of a lion, at all events in a state of repose, even though in the confinement of a menagerie, without being impressed with the feeling that it is a grand and noble-looking animal. (w. H. F.) LIPARI ISLANDS. These islands, which take their name from the largest and most populous member of the group, are situated to the north of the eastern half of Sicily, between 38 20 and 38 55 N. lat., and 14 15 and 15 15 E. long. The seven principal islands are Lipari, Salina, Vulcano, Stromboli, Panaria, Filicudi, and Alicudi ; besides which there are ten islets, some of them mere rocks, the remains of a great central volcano now submerged. The total population of the islands in 1871 was 18,400, and the area is less than 50 square miles. They were known to the ancients as the Hepkeestiades or Vulcanise insulx, from their supposed connexion with Vulcan ; the Liparenses, from their mythical king Lipara ; and the jEolise insulse, from ^Eolus, who was said to have married the daughter of Lipara, and to have succeeded to the kingdom. Lipara, the chief island, was colonized in the 6th century B.C. by Cnidians and Rhodians, who rapidly spread to the adjacent islands of Hiera and Didyme. The new settlers maintained their independence in spite of the attacks of the Tyrrhenian pirates, but they later became subject successively to the Athenians, Carthaginians, and Romans. In the Middle Ages the Saracens took possession of the islands, but they were expelled by the Normans in the 1 1th century. Finally Ferdinand the Catholic annexed them to Sicily. Lipari has an area of about 11 square miles, with a population of 1 2,000. It is mountainous in character, and consists of tuffs and lavas, and of highly siliceous volcanic products such as quartz-trachyte, pumice, and obsidian. The great central cone, Monte Sant Angelo (1952 feet), is the ruin of an extinct volcano, as is also Monte Chirica (1978 feet); while Campo Bianco or Monte Pelato (1500 feet) is a mountain of white pumice, breached by an out flow of vitreous lava. Hot springs exist in various parts of the island, the most important being those of San Calogero, mentioned by Diodorus Siculus, and situated about G miles from the town. The water, which possesses a temperature of 198 Fahr., contains free carbonic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen, together with carbonates of calcium and magnesium, and chlorides of calcium and sodium. The chief town, which stands on the eastern point of the island, is quite modern, and contains no objects of interest. The cathedral and several other churches are within the precincts of the castle, and they are presided over by a bishop and thirty-two canons. The castle is used as a prison for some four hundred malefactors, sent from various parts of Italy. The island is governed by a delegate, subject to the prefect of Messina. The soil is fertile ; and a considerable trade is carried on by a number of merchants who export currants, figs, pumice stone, and malmsey wine. Water is scarce owing to the great porosity of the soil. Six miles to the south of Lipari is the island of Vulcan o, anciently known as Hiera, Vulcania, and Therusia. In early times it was a very active volcano ; and it is described by Thucydides, Aristotle, and Callias as being frequently in a state of violent eruption. In the 2d century B.C. the smaller island of Vulcanello was upheaved from the sea. The present crater was probably formed during the eruption of 1786, from which time the volcano remained in a quiescent state till the autumn of 1873, when it commenced to discharge clouds of vapour, showers of sand, and large stones. Blue and green flames were also seen to issue from rifts in the floor of the crater. When visited by the writer in 1879, the volcano had again relapsed into the solfatara stage, and it had recently been purchased by a Scotch firm for .8000, for the purpose of extracting alum, boracic
