time his life has been devoted to the use of this instrument, and his publications on the subject of microscopic observations are amongst the most important published during the present century. His great work was his "Infusionsthierchen," published at Leipzig in 1838. This work was the result of extensive observation on the group of minute organisms of which it treated. A vast amount of new information on the structure and habits of these organisms was contained in this volume, and a large number of new forms hitherto unknown were described. Few books in the history of science have produced a more profound impression on the minds of scientific men. A new world was opened, more extensive than any that had hitherto been discovered; and a rush of investigators took place into the new fields of research. If some of Ehrenberg's observations were found to be imperfect, if some of his conclusions were premature, it was not more than was naturally to be expected from an observer and writer who had entered on a field so new as the investigation, at that time, of the forms of microscopic life. Ehrenberg must always have the credit of reviving the use of an instrument that had fallen into discredit, and having perceived the value of minute research, not only in the discrimination of minute organism, but in unravelling the structure of the tissues of the higher organisms. Ehrenberg's researches have not been confined to living organisms. He has directed successfully his attention to fossil infusoria, and his great work on "Micro-Geology" contain his researches on this department of inquiry. In Agassiz's Bibliography, containing a list of his works and papers up to 1850, the names of upwards of eighty are given. These are probably not more than half he has published. He still holds his chair at Berlin, and is a very constant contributor to the scientific literature of the day.—E. L.
EHRENMALM, Arvid, a Swedish voyager of the eighteenth century. In 1741 the government sent him to explore the province of Ahsele-Lappmark, in the extreme north of the province of Nordland. He was accompanied by the Baron Cederhielm, in conjunction with whom he prepared in the following year an interesting account of their explorations of those dreary regions of perpetual snow and ice. Their book, which has been translated into French and German, was published at Stockholm in 1742.—R. M., A.
EHRENSCHILD, Conrad Bierman, a Danish statesman was born in 1629, and died in 1698. After serving in subordinate political offices, he was made foreign secretary by Frederick III., and afterwards secretary of state. He was employed in various missions, and acquired great power in the government of his country, being an able and honest diplomatist.—R. M., A.
EHRENSKJÖLD, Nils, a Swedish rear-admiral, born at Abo in 1674. In 1714 he received command of the Swedish fleet, and the following year encountered in Hangôfjörd, a greatly superior Russian fleet; and after three hours' fight the admiral's ship, the Elephant, being boarded by the Czar Peter, who himself acted as rear-admiral, he and his ships were taken captive to St. Petersburg. Ehrenskjöld died in 1728, being at that time director of the admiralty.—M. H.
EHRENSTED or BONONIUS, Edward Philipszon, a Swedish statesman, born in 1620, and died in 1686. He entered political life under the patronage of Admiral Ake-Hanson Ulfsparre; accompanied John Oxenstierna into Germany in 1655; and towards the close of the same year was summoned to Poland to act in the capacity of secretary to Charles Gustavus. After conducting many embassies and negotiations, he returned to Stockholm in 1675. He left an autobiography, written in a vein of piety not a little remarkable in one who had been so long conversant with the corruptions and entanglements of political life.—R. M., A.
EHRENSTRALE, David, was born in Malmö on 14th July, 1695. He studied jurisprudence in Lund, and, after extensive travels, was appointed in 1721 professor of jurisprudence in the same university. By his lectures and writings he raised the study of law to a much higher position than it had ever before held in Sweden. His principal works are—"Inledning till then Svenska Jurisprudentiam Civilem;" "Inledning till then Svenska Processum Civilem;" "Föreläsningar öfver Giftermals-Balken;" "Föreläsningar ofver Arfda-Balken;" and "Inledning till then Svenska Jurisprudentiam Criminalem."—M. H.
EHRENSVARD, August, a Swedish officer, born in 1710 of military parentage. He served in 1741 in the war of Finland, also with the Prussian army in Bohemia. He was the originator of the fortifications of Sveaborg, and also of the coasting fleet. He died as count and field-marshal on 4th October, 1764, at Oberstboligen Saris in Finland.—M. H.
EHRENSVARD, Carl August, son of the above, born on 5th May, 1745. He was early destined by his father to arms, and served under him in Pomerania, and also in the building of Sveaborg, and in the coasting fleet. At the commencement of the Finnish war in 1788, he was appointed admiral and admiral-general of the whole fleet in 1792. But a military life was not to his taste; and abandoning it, he devoted himself to art. In 1780 he went to Italy for the study of antique art, and on his return published his journey, with copperplate illustrations by himself, he also being skilful in engraving; and his philosophy of the fine arts—"De fria konsternas Philosophi," 1786. His views were kindred to those of Winkelman, and opposed to all established opinion in Sweden; nor was it till Atterbom in his Phosphorus in 1813 became the exponent of a higher æsthetic culture, that they were treated with any regard: after which Hammarskjöld, von Beskow, and others brought them into repute. His drawings are highly valued by collectors. He died at Orebro on 21st May, 1800.—M. H.
EHRET, George Denis, a German painter of plants, was born at Baden in 1710, and died in England in 1770. He was the son of the prince of Baden Dourlach's gardener, and early showed a taste for drawing and painting flowers. While yet a young man, he painted five hundred plants with such accuracy, that the celebrated Dr. Trew of Nürnberg purchased the whole collection for double the price at which the modest artist valued them. He afterwards resided some time at Montpellier in France, where he taught his art to a rich lady, who, on his wish to remove, defrayed his expenses to Lyons and Paris. Here he became known to Jussieu. Having visited London, he returned to the continent, and in 1736 was employed in the garden of Mr. Clifford, where Linnæus found him, and gave him some instruction. His skill was displayed in the figures of the Hortus Cliffortianus. In 1740 he returned to England, where he painted many hundred plants. Sir Hans Sloane and Dr. Fothergill were his patrons. Engravings were made from his paintings for Dr. Trew's Plantæ Selectæ and Brown's History of Jamaica. He was made F.R.S. in 1757.—T. J.
EHRHART, Balthasar, a German physician and botanist, who died about the year 1756. He devoted attention specially to botanical science, and published, amongst other works on the subject, a "History of Economical Plants;" a treatise "On useful Plants and Trees," and an elementary work on the study of botany, and on the importance of herbaria.—J. H. B.
EHRHART, Friedrich, a Swiss botanist, was born at Holderbank in the canton of Berne in 1742, and died in 1795. He was the son of a protestant minister. His ardent pursuit of natural history attracted the attention of Haller. In 1765 he studied pharmacy at Nürenberg, and subsequently at Erlangen, Hannover, Stockholm, and Upsal. In the last-mentioned city he studied under Linnæus and Bergmann. He was employed to examine the Hanoverian flora, and was elected director of the botanic garden at Herrnhausen. From 1787 to 1792 he continued to publish decads of dried plants, illustrating the flora of Hanover, as well as medicinal species.—J. H. B.
EHRMANN, Frederic Louis, a French physician, the inventor of inflammable air lamps; born at Strasburg in 1740; died at the same place in 1800. He was professor of chemistry. Amongst other works he wrote "Elements of Physics."—W. H. P. G.
EHRMANN, Marianne, a Swiss lady, who wrote in German several works relating to the education of women, which obtained considerable success, was born at Rapperschweil in 1755, and died in 1795. Her maiden name was Brentano. She was twice married; first to a person who, in a short while, dissipated her entire fortune; and secondly to the geographer Ehrmann, who had sustained such losses in business shortly after their marriage as to make Madame Ehrmann dependent upon literature for the rest of her life.—J. S., G.
EICHENDORFF, Joseph, Freiherr von, a distinguished German poet, was born of an old Roman catholic family on 10th December, 1788, on his father's estate of Lubowitz, Upper Silesia. He received his education in the catholic gymnasium of Breslau, and the universities of Halle and Heidelberg. In 1813 he joined the Prussian army against Napoleon, and after the restoration of peace, was successively raised to high administrative offices, which he, however, resigned in 1843. As a poet
