EGTPT. 701 EGYPT. were bound to ojjserve scrupulous personal clean- liness, and in token of this tlicy wore pure white linen garments and shaved their heads. I'ntil the New Empire there was no distinct military class. Each nome had its own militia, and the noniai-ch was bound to furnish a certain contingent in time of war. l?ut the Egyptians were never a warlike people, and hence from the earliest times they dejiended largely upon foreign mercenaries — at first Nubians, later Libyans and Europeans. Under the New Empire the army was of vastly greater importance ; some of the highest offices of the State were held by military men, and the army vied with the priesthood in political influence. At a later ju'riod in mili- tary families, who were generally of foreign ori- gin, the connection with the army was commonly inherited, together with the field given by the Government as a fief for service. See paragraph on the Egyptian army under the title Abmies. The chief occupation of the Eg^-ptians has al- ways been agriculture. Wheat, barley, and durra (black millet) were the staple crops; but vege- tables and fruits, such as onions, cucumbers, melons, grapes, and figs, were also extensively cultivated. The agricultural methods employed were rather rude and primitive. The soil was broken with a wooden plow drawn by o.xen, and was laboriously worked with a heavy wooden hoe. After the seed was scattered, flocks of slieep were driven over the freshly sown field to trample down the soil. At the time of harvest, durra was pulled up by the roots ; but other grain was cut with a short sickle. On the threshing-floor the grain was trodden out by the hoofs of ani- mals ; under the Old Empire these were usually donkeys, while in the time of the New Empire osen were used for this purpose. After thresh- ing, the grain was passed through a coarse sieve, and was then winnowed by tossing it in the air with small wooden hand shovels. It was then measured by the scribes and stored in the gran- aries. Cattle-raising was extensively carried on from verj- early times. Under the Old Empire there were still many marshy tracts in Upper Egj-pt which furnished excellent pasturage, and at all times the Delta was a favorite pasture- ground. Much attention was paid to the improve- ment of the stock, and the finest bulls were al- ways resered for breeding purposes. Goats and sheep were raised in great immbers. The donkey was the ordinary beast'of burden, although oxen were also used. Horses are first represented on the monuments of the Eighteenth DjTiasty; they were usually harnessed to chariots for war or lor traveling, but were rarely ridden. Stallions were preferred to mares, and geldings do not .•'ccm to have been used until a very late period. Camels are not represented on the monuments be- fore the time of the Ptolemies. The Nile was the great highway of travel and traflSc, and, with its niunerous canals, gave easy access to all parts of the eountrj". Timber was
- ^carce, and the smallest boats were flat-bottomed
-kifTs constructed of bundles of papyrus reeds bound tightly together: they were propelled by poles or paddles, according to the depth of the water. Larger vessels were built of wood ob- tained from Xubia. These were also flal-liot- tomed. and had the characteristic form of the iriodern Nile boat, in which the stern has con- siderably more overhang than the bow, so that. should the vessel run on a sandbar, the bow could be lifted oil" by throwing the weight astern. These boats varied considerably, according to the use for which they were intended. Freight-ves- sels were broad and clumsy, resembling scows. War-vessels and boats intended for travel and recreation were often handsomely decorated. In addition to the oars, they were usually provided with a large s(|uare sail attached to a yard. It was not until the time of the New Empire that a second yard, at the foot of the sail, was added. Both yards had braces and sheets for trimming the sail. The sheets, halliards, and standing rig- ging were all made fast inside of the gunwale. War-vessels sometimes had a crow's-iiest at the top of the mast, for a lookout or for archers. Large steering oars supplied the place of the rud- der. But though they were at home in river navigation, the Egyptians were always disin- clined to maritime enterprises, and therefore the carrying trade of the ilediterranean remained in the hands of the Phoenicians, while the infre- quent expeditions of Egyptian ships down the Red Sea to the Somali coast (see Pt'NT) did not result in the establishment of extensive traffic in that direction. In the south a V3ry important trade was carried on with Nubia, and trading posts were early established at Syene and Ele- phantine (q.v.), where panther-skins, ebony, ivory, and ostrich-feathers were bartered for Egy])tian commodities. To the north a consider- able trade was carried on by caravans with Syria and other Asiatic countries. Commerce was con- ducted by barter, and in the early period money of any sort seems to have been unknown. Under the New Empire metal rings were used as cur- rency, a copper wire of given weight serving as unit. Although Egypt was chiefly an agricultural country, her manufactures were important, anil were early developed. Linen was extensively manufactured, and the finer grades of the ancient Egyptian linen cannot be surpassed in modern times. The papyrus-plant furnished material for several industries. Bundles Oi papyrus reeds took the place of wood for the construction of small boats, and from the twisted fibres sandals, ropes, mats, sails, fishing-nets, and other olijects were made. The most important use of the plant was, however, in the manufacture of paper. For this purpose the stalks were cut into thin strips, and a layer of these strips was placed upon a flat surface. Over this a second layer was placed at right angles to the first layer. The leaf thus formed was pressed out into a thin sheet, to which the natural gum of the plant gave a homo- geneous character. The sheets were then dried and were ready for use. In the working of leather the Egj'ptians were very skillful. The coarser leather was used for the soles of sandals and shoes; from the finer grades were made aprons, belts, coverings for chairs and sofas, harness, chariot trai)pings, bow- cases, and many other objects. Fine colored leather was stamped with ornamental patterns. Good clay is to be fouid in all parts of Egypt, and the potter's art was very early developed. The Egyptian earthenware was made ipoii the potter's wheel, and was usually of a very simple character. For ornamental purposes, however, the Egyptians knew how to prepare a glaz<'d ware resembling faience, and of this they made statuettes, vases, beads, and other small objects.
