EGYPT. 702 EGYPT. Glass was produced at a very early period, and glass-blowiiig is represented in pictures of the ■Middle and New empires. The K'i;rptian artisans were proficient in metal-working, although metals had to be imported and were therefore scarce. Tools and weapons of the earliest period were made of copper, later of bronze. Iron, although known from very ancient times, was always scarce, and was therefore not extensively used. Silver was in earlier limes mure valuable than gold : but under the Xew Empire it became more plentiful, and the relative values of the precious metals were reversed. An amalgam, correspond- ing to the electron of the Greeks, and containing two parts of gold to three of silver, was much used for jewelry and ornamental purposes. The great skill of the Egyptian goldsmiths and jewel- ers is exhibited in many specimens of their art that have been found in the tombs. They were adepts in the use of enamels, which were beauti- fully colored, and they made skillful imitations of precious stones in paste. For building purposes and for sculpture, the Egyptian quarries furnished an ample supply of stone of various kinds. From the quarries of Turah, nearly opposite Memphis, came the fine white limestone, which was used for mastabas, pyramids, and statues, and alabaster was obtained in the same neighborliood. iSandstone was ob- tained from the quarries near Gebel Silsileh, and near Assuan was quarried the beautiful red granite used for obelisks, columns, statues, and doorways, and for other architectural and artistic purposes. In the Wfidi Hamniamilt was quarried the black granite used for statues and sarcophagi. ' Although working with inferior tools, the Egyp- tian artisans handled the hardest stones in a manner unsurpassed in modern times. Their cutting was done with a small metal chisel and a wooden mnllet. and they obtained a fine polish by rubbing with pieces of quartz or with quartz- dust. As a building material, stone was chiefly used for the construction of temples, tombs, pyra- mids, obelisks, and other enduring monuments; private houses were built of bricks made of Nile mud. The dwellings of the poorer class were generally mere hovels; those of the wealthy were often of considerable size and contained many rooms. The framework was of timber, and at the entrance there was often a columned portico. In some e.vamples represented on the monuments the roof Is raised above the upper story by small pillars, and the spaces between the pillars are left open to secure free ventilation. In others, an awning is stretched over the Hat roof, which was, apparent!}', the favorite resort of the family. Country houses were surrounded by gardens with beds of flowers, alleys of trees, and artificial , lakes. The EgyptiaiK were not a grave and philosoph- ical people; on the contrary, they were gay and cheerful. They were fond of amusement, and their frequent social entertainments were enli- vened by the performances of musicians, d.ancers, and jugglers. Women, as well as men, were guests at these feasts, which were not always of a very sober character. As a people the Egj'p- tians were much addicted to the tise of intoxi- cating beverages. Beer was the national drink ; it was brewed from barley malt, and several kinds of beer are mentioned in the inscriptions. Wine also was largely consumed, and the Egyptian vineyards produced both red and white wines in abundance. Of the many games mentioned or depicted on the monuments, the game of draughts appears to have been most popular. It was believed to form the favorite recreation of the blessed dead in the Lower World, and many draught-boards have been found in the tombs. At all times the Egyptians took great delight in field sports. The marshes were well stocked with a(iuatic birds, wbicli the sportsman, push- ing among the reeds in liis skill", brought down with a throw-stick. Angling with rod and line and the spearing of fish were also favorite amuse- ments. Larger game, especially the antelope, was hunted with hounds in the Libyan Desert, and lions were often killed in the same locality. At the popular festivals a favorite sport was the water tournament, in which the contending boat- men stood in their skill's and sought to push their opponents overboard with long poles. Wrestling and cudgel-play were also features of these occasions, and such contests were often so earnest that the defeated contestant had to be carried from the field. In ancient Egjpt women enjoyed a much greater degree of independence than in other coimtries of antiquity. They apiicared with their husbands at social entertainments, and took part in religious ceremonies. There were regular or- ders of priestesses attached to the service of the gods, and under the Xew Empire the priestesses, or 'singers,' of Amnion of Thebes were a very important body. At the head usually stood the Queen, and the lower grades were composed of the wives and d.aughters of priests, officials, mili- tary officers, and even artisans. The Egyptian laws secured to wcmien the full enjoyment of the rights of property. A married woman, for ex- ample, could hold property at her own .separate disposal, and could even lend money on interest to her husband. Polygamy was allowed, but was rarely ]>racticed; as a rule there was but one legitimate wife, who held a most honorable posi- tion in the household, and had the direction of domestic alTairs. A man miglit also have as many concubines as his means would allow ; but extensive harems were a luxury of the rich. The Egyptians usually married yoiuig, and their large families were a source of wonder to the Greeks. Although the higher learning was in the hands of the priests, education was rather widely dif- fused, and reading and writing were common ac- complishments, even among the lower classes. .Schools existed throughout the coiuitry; they were usually attached to the various govern- mental de])artments. and. under the New Empire at least, graduation in these schools opened the way to admission into the civil and military service of the State. The school discipline was severe, and the rod was freely administered. "The ears of the young," says the Egyptian prov- erb, "are placed on the back, and the boy hears when he is flogged." At first the young pupil was taught to form the characters on potsherds, ))apyrus being too expensive for this purpose. When be acquired some skill in writing be was set to copying moral maxims like our old-time copy-book texts, and as he advanced he copied longer extracts, and finally complete texts which were selected for their matter and style. The
