ELECTION. 740 ELECTIVE AFFINITIES. a governor, or a mayor: and, on the other hand, from their selection by lot. The last-named method of choosing public olHeers was considered bv Aristotle one of the characteristic features of a iKijiiilar government. It has been advocated by other writers, because of its tendency to pre- vent the formation of political parties. Party organization, the caucus, the coalition of dilfcrcnt factions, the corruption of voters, the falsification of election returns, the interest of a particular candidate and liindrcd evils, it is argued, will all be swe]>t away if officers are selected by lot. Uhen officers are chosen by the great body of the voting population, the election is spoken of as popular or direct. This is the prevailing form in free government at present. It had its origin in the general assemblies of primitive States, such as the Roman Concilia, the Athenian Ecclesia. the Teutonic Assembly of Freemen. After the establishment of the Roman Empire, popular election became a farce, and finally dis- appeared as a political institution of the Roman State. It was continued, however, in the eccle- siastical government of the Christian Church, ' and reappeared throughout Europe in the guilds of all kinds whose members chose their officers, as well as in the free towns, whose citizens elected their municipal officers to attend to local affairs, and their representatives to take part in the delibei"ations and legislation of Parliaments or the States-General. Election is said to be indirect or representative when it is limited to a comparatively small body, whose members have themselves been chosen by the general mass of electors. Elective monarchs liavc usually been selected in this way. Examples may be found in the case of the former kings of Poland and Hun- gary, and of the head of the old German Empire. At times the choice of candidates for kingsliip has been limited to a certain family, while the right of voting was exercisable by all the free- men. Such appears to have been the early prac- tice of most Tevitonic States. As a State en- larges, this practice is generally modified. Dr. Stubbs tells us that tiie election of the King in Anglo-Saxon England belonged, both in form and substance, to the Witan, although e.^ereised by that body in the general assemblies of the whole nation. A striking example of indirect or repre- sentative elections in our time is afforded by the choice of United States Senators by the legisla- tures of the various States. In theory, the Presi- dent of the United States is selected by the Presiilential electors chosen in each State. In practice, however, these electors cast their votes for the partv candidate. Another classification of elections is based upon the governmental functions of the offices to which persons are chosen. An election is national which has for its object the selection of national officers, such as members of the United States House of Representatives, who are chosen every two years, and the President and Vice-President, who are chosen every four years. It is styled a iS7o/e election when held for the choice of State officers, such as Governor. Lieutenant-Governor, and members of the State Legislature. If the political duties of an officer are confined to a particular subdivision of the State, such as a town, a eit.v. or a county, his election is known as municipal. Any fraudulent act tending to defeat an hon- est, free, fair, and pure election is a criminal of- fense at common law. N'arious statutes have been passed in almost wery State for the express purpose of securing to voters entire freedom of action and of |)reventing imjjroper practices in voting, in receiving voles, in counting votes, and in registering the results. The validit.v and regu- larity of elections are not infrequently disputed, and such disputes present important questions for the courts or for special tribunals. Of the latter class, the most famous in the history of this country is the Presidential Electoral Com- mission of 1877, constituted of five Senator?, five members of the House of Representatives, and five associate justices of the Unitetl States Supreme Court, which decided the contest be- tween Tilden and Ha.ves. B.y the Federal Con- stitution each House of Congress is the final judge of the election of its members, and a similar ]uu- vision relating to the State legislatures is found in most of the State constitutions. It must be confessed that nearly everv case of contested election in Congress or State legislatiires has been decided upon purel.v partisan considerations. Contested Parliamentary elections in Great Brit- ain are determined by the courts, and not bv tlu' House of Commons. Surely, this is the fairer and better method. Election officers, whether inspectors at the various voting precincts, or members of a county or State board of canvassers, perform merely ministerial functions. They are not judicial or quasi-judicial officers. Their dvitv is to do the acts prescrilwd by statute, and not to pass jud,cr- nicnt upon disjiuted (luestions. If they go be- yond their ministerial duties and attempt to exercise judicial functions, they subject them- selves to an action for damages by anv ))erson legally wronged, as well as to criminal punish- ment.' (SeeB.LLOT: Electoral Reform; Strr- FBAGE ; VOTE. ) Cousiilt : People vs. Hoard of Can- vassers, 129 X. Y., 371-72: People vs. Hice. 129 X. Y.. 40.5-01): Aristotle. Politics, b.v Weldon (London. 1883) : Freeman, Comparative Politics (London. 1873) : Woolsev. Political Science (Xew York. 1877) : Stanwood. Presidential Elections (1892 K ELECTION CAKE. A ricli loaf cake, which, in the days when Connecticut held an annual election, formed an important part of the re- freshments offered to visitors to the State capi- tal. ELECTION COMMITTEE. See Co.ngress, L'NITKh State.s. ELECTIVE AFFINITIES. A term express- ing an old coiiception of the cause of chemical changes. According to that conception, if a given substance is brought into contact with two other substances, with either of which it is capa- ble of combining, it will enter into combination with the one for which it has the greater allinil.v. Elective affinities were thus supposed to be in- variable, and to be determined entirely by the nature of substances. .t present this idea is known to be false, or rather to require verv im- portant limitation. The nature of substances, while one of the factors determining the course of chemical change is not the onlv factor, the active mas.ses of sub.stances and the temperature being known to have a definite inlluence in all eases. See Bergman ; Bertiiollet: Aitinitv,
