ELECTIVE AFFINITIES. 741 ELECTORAL COLLEGE. Chemical: Kkactio.n : Electho - L'hemistky; ■I'llKKMO I'llEMlMUV. ELECTIVE COURSES aiul ELECTIVE STUDIES. Ii-nii^ tlial liavo com,, iiitu roniiMcin use during the last thirty or forty years in American eoUeges. and to some extent in otler educational establishments, to indicate the stud- ies which may v. elected or chosen by under- graduate students. In earlier days there was n required ciirriculuni which must be followed by all candidates iVir the dejtree of bachelor of arts. At a later period, to meet the special ueeds or wishes of individuals, certain studies were made "optional" — modern languages, for example, the higher branches of mathematics, botany, surveying, and other scientific or tech- nical branches. The rapid growth of science and the enlarged resources of the colleges were naturally followed by enlargement of the teaching forces, and by provision for instruction in sub- jects before neglected. Choice beiaiiic impera- tive. To a considerable extent this necessity was recognized and satisfied by the foundation of technical or scientific schools, sometimes depart- ments of or annexes to the old colleges, some- . times independent establishments. Gradually the old curriculum, often called the regular college course, yielded to the same influences. A few institutions still adhere, with conunendable pride, to the theory of a liberal education based upon the classics and mathematics — antecedent to the time-honored baccalaureate degree. Yet the American colleges generally ofTer in these days a very considerable freedom in the selec- tion of subjects to which the student may devote his time. There are certain inherent dangers in this freedom. The love of ease may lead to the selection of courses — which are called 'soft' in college parlance — exacting but Rttle mental effort : or the ignorance and inexperience of youth may lead to selections which will be regretted in nuiture life. To obviate such dangers, it is common to lay before the students 'groups' of subjects which form a good combination. With more or less emphasis these 'groups' are com- mended to students. As a further guide to the wise selection of subjects, members of a faculty are always ready to give advice, and in some places those teachers who are most interested in pedagogies are officially recognized as 'ad- visers' — a term which seems to have been intro- duced to supersede that of tutors, who were re- garded rather as disciplinarians than as coun- selors. On the whole, the establishment of elec- tive courses marks a propitious advance in high- er education. The system works well wherever due care is exercised by the authorities to secure industry, application, and concentration. The I'niversity of Virginia was a pioneer in the pro- vision of electives. Most of the State univer- sities are now thoroughly committed to the principle. The older colleges, led by Harvard, have adopted it to a greater or less extent. The new foundations — Cornell. .Johns Hopkins, Chi- cago, and Leland Stanford, .Tunior — ^lave never felt the fetters of a traditional curriculum. The exact position of any college can be ascer- tained only by reference to its latest announce- ments, for changes freriuently occur in the sub- jects offered and in the technical requirements for degrees. Consult: Rutler. KiUirnlion iii thr VnitPd Sliita (.Mbany. 1900) : Elint. Kdurnlirmnl Krform (Xew York. ISOSl : Tin ribirnliniiiil Rr- i-i'cir (Xew York. 1891, et seq.). See Colleges, Ameuiia.x ; L'.MVEH.siTY ; and the various institu- Unli-. ELECTORAL COLLEGE. In the political system of the L nited Slates, the body of electors in each State who have been chosen to select the President and Vice-President. The expression does not appear in the Constitution or statutes, but is a popular designation of the electors, ado|)ted b analogy to the college of cardinals, to which the choice of the popes is conuuitted. It is sometimes employed of the whole body of electors for President and Vice-President, chosen by all the States. The Constitution prescribes (Art. II.; and Amendments, Art. Xll.) the num- ber of electors and the manner in which they shall exercise their high functions, but leaves to the States the mode of apjrainting them, and to Congress the power to determine a uniform time for choosing them and the day on which they shall give their votes. Accordingly, the mem- bers of the electoral college in each and every State are chosen simultaneously by popular vote on the Tuesday next after the first Jfonday in >>ovember. Their number is equal to the whole muuber of Representatives which the State sends to botli branches of Congress. They are requiied to meet at some place designated by the Legisla- ture of their State on the second Jlonday in .January, and then and there to vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, of whom one, at least, shall not be a resident of the same State with themselves. Each electoral college then makes a list of the names of all its candidates for President and Vice-President, with the num- ber of votes for each ; the list is signed and certi- fied by every member of the college, is authenti- cated by the Governor of the State, and trans- mitted to the President of the Senate of the United States. On the second Wednesday in Feb- ruary the electoral votes are opened and counted in presence of both Houses of Congress, assem- bled in the chamber of Representatives, and the result is announced by the president of the Senate. The persons who receive the highest number of votes, respectively, for the offices of President and Vice-President are declared elected, provided they have received a majority of all the votes. In ease of a tie, the House of Representatives, voting by States, each State having one vote, is to choose between the equal candidates for Presi- dent, a majority of all the States being necessary to a choice. The Senate has the power to choose in case of a tie in the vote for Vice-President. In the same way, in case there is no tie, but the lead- ing candidates fail to receive a majority of all the votes, the election for President is thrown into the House, and that for Vice-President into the Senate. I'lider the Constitution ;is originally framed the electoral colleges did not designate their clioice for President or Vice-President, but when the total votes were counted by the Prrei- dent of the Senate, the candidate receiviHg the highest number of votes was declared to be elected President, and his nearest competitor Vice-President. But the Twelfth .mendinent to the Constitution, adopted in 1.104. cluniged the mode of voting for the two officers, the electors being rccpiirccl to vote separately for I'resident and 'icePre~ident. The present position and functions of the electoral college furnish a striking illustration of the w;iv in which a written and stable eonsti-
