GRAHAM. 108 GRAHAM-GILBERT. alcoholism upon proposed radical refonns in diet, his theory being th.it a vegetable diet is incom- patible with a craving for stimulants. In par- ticular, therefore, he urged an entire abstinence from meat, and an improvement in the making of bread. tJraham bread has become a settled name for the article made of unbolted wheat Hour, and strongly recommended by him. He published: Graham Lectures on the Seicnce of Human Life (1839) ; Bread and Bread-ilaking; A Lecture to Young Men on Chastity; and part of a projected work on The Philosophy of Sacred History. GRAHAM. TiioM.vs. See Lyxedoch, Thomas Grah.m, Lord. GRAHAM, Thomas (1805-69). An English chemist, born in Glasgow. Having studied at Glasgow and Edinburgh, he became, in 1830, pro- fessor of chemistry at the Andersonian Univer- sity, and continued in that office till 1837, when he succeeded Dr. Turner in the chemical chair of University College. London. In 1855 he was ap- pointed master of the mint, and resigned his professorship. Graham is best known for his researches on the diffusion of gases and of sub- stances in solution. His experiments, carried out with the aid of very simple apparatus, fur- nished valuable data, which have proved of great importance in the development of the modern theory of solutions. In studying solutions, he found that the velocity of diffusion varies with the substance in solution, and depends to a great extent on the temjjerature at which the liquid is kept. He found that amorphous substances like albumen, gum arable, silicic acid, ferric hydroxide, etc., which he designated by the term colloids, dif- fuse very slowly, and are incapable of passing through "parchment paper or animal membranes, while substances like sugar, the mineral acids and their salts, etc., which he tenned crystalloids, dif- fuse more or less rapidly and pass freely through membranes. He was thus led to the discovery of the analytical method known as dialysis. To separate by this method a crv-stalloid from a colloid, the solution containing both is placed in a suitable vessel, and is separated from a volume of pure water usually by parchment paper. Part of the ciTstalloid tiien passes out of the solu- tion into the pure water, while the colloid is stopped by the membrane. If the water, now containing some of the crystalloid, is replaced by a new quantity of pure water, some more of tiie crystalloid diffuses out of the solution con- taining the mixture. By repeating the operation several times, a solution is finally obtained which contains practically nothing but the pure colloid. Graham carried out numerous other classical re- searches in chemistry, including investigations of the acids of phosphorus, the constitution of sul- phates and oxalates, etc. His researches were published in the foiTn of original memoirs, com- prising in all sixty-three papers on various sub- jects. In addition to these memoirs, he brought out an excellent treatise on chemistry, which has passed through several editions, and was repub- lished in this country and translated into Ger- man. He also edited the Chemical Reports and Memoirs of the Cavendish Society in 1848. Graham was the first president of the Chemical and the Cavendish societies, was a fellow of the Royal Society, and an honorary member of many foreign scientific bodies. He was likewise fre- quently placed by the British Government on important scientific commissions. See Diffu- .siu.N : Colloids; Chemistry. GRAHAM, William Alexander (18C4-75). An American politician. He was born in Lin- coln County, N. C. ; graduated at the University of Xorth Carolina in 1824; was admitted to the bar soon afterwards, and for several years after 1833 was a member of the State Legislatui'e, serv- ing for part of the time as Speaker of the Lower House. He served three years in the United States Senate, and was elected Governor of his State by the Whigs in 1845, and again in 1847. Under President Fillmore he was Secretary of the Xavy from 1850 until June, 1852. and as such organized Commodore Perry's expedition to .Japan. When General Scott ran for Presi- dent in 1852, Graham was on the ticket as can- didate for Vice-President. In 1805 he was a member of the Confederate Senate. GRAHAM BREAD. See Bread. GRAHAME, gr.im, .Lmes (1790-1842). A Scotcli historian. He was born at Glasgow; was educated at Saint John's, Cambridge; practiced law for some years; and then devoted his time to the preparation of his History of the Rise and Progress of the United States of Xorth America (to 1770) (4 vols., 1830). The work passed through several editions (the edition of 1845 con- taining a Memoir by Josiah Quincy), and was pronoiniced by Preseott to be the best work be- fore Bancroft's. Bancroft's criticisms of Grahame were answered by Quincy in a pamphlet pub- lished in 1840, The Memory of the Late James Grahame Vindicated from the Charges of Mr. Ban- croft (Boston. 1840). Grahame also denounced slavery in Who is to Blame? or Cursory Review of the Ameriean Apology for American Acces- sion to ycgro Slavery (1842). GRAHAME., James (1705-1811). A Scottish poet. He was bora in Glasgow, was educated at the university of that city, and removed to Edinburgh in" 1784. where he studied and prac- ticed law. Finding the legal profession unsuited to his tastes, he afterwards toolc orders in the Church of England, and was successively curate of Shipton, in Gloucestershire, and of Sedge- field, in the County of Durham. He left several poetic works, the chief of which is The Sabbath (1804), a poem admired by Scott for its feeling for nature, and scoffed at by Byron in his Eng- lish Bards and Scotch Reviewers. Grahame also published: Poems on the Aholiiion of the Slave Trade (1804). and a pamphlet, The Birds of Scotland (1800). GRAHAM-GIL'BERT, Jonx (1794-1806). A Scotch painter, born at Glasgow-, son of a West Indian merchant. He went into business at his father's command, but soon left it to devote himself to art; went to London (1818) ; studied in the Royal Academy schools : and won a silver medal in 1819 and a gold medal in 1820. He be- came a portrait painter, and exhibited at the Royal Academy (1820-23). He then spent several years in Italy, but had returned to Scotland in 1827. In 1829 he became an Academician. Five years later he married a Jliss Gilbert, and assumed her name. In 1804 he was defeated for the presi- dency of the Scottish Academy by a single vote. He painted portraits of Sir John Watson Gordon (18.56), John Gibson (1848), Sir Walter Scott
