TIBET. 268 TIBET. the population, the seat of the government, and the great centres of culture and refinement. Climate. The climate is extremely severe. It is dry owing to the shutting out of the moisture-carrying clouds from the south by the great South Chain of the Himalayas. There are sometimes, however, heavy ilownpours of rain. Bower, who crossed the country between 32° and 34° north latitude, found the temperature in June to range from 18° to 34° F. ; in July, from 17° to 30°; in August, from 19° to 35°; in Sep- tember, from 19° to 36°; in October, from 15° below zero to 21° above; in November, at the decreased elevation of Eastern Tibet, from 15° below to 21° above; and in December, at a still lower level (9000 to 81.54 feet), from 1° to 14° above zero. Flora. It has been estimated that not more than one-twentieth of the surface of Tibet is cov- ered with vegetation. It has been fairly well settled that the flora, so far as the northern and eastern sections are concerned, belongs to the Arctic Alpine division of the great northern region. Toward the south it approaches that of India ; and in parts the vegetation is luxuriant. Fauna. This includes the wild yak (Poeph- affus grunniciis) , antelope, gazelle, kyang or ■wild ass (Equus heinioiius) , nyang or mountain sheep, Ovis amnion (found above an elevation of 15,000 feet), wolf, fox, wild dog, bear (regarded by the natives with dread as the primitive speech- less wild man and hence unmolested), musk deer, and hare. In game-birds — especially in Eastern Tibet — there are the sand-grouse, several species of pheasant, ducks, teal, the bar-headed goose, coolen, etc. Toward the south the faima is more Indian in character, and includes the lynx, leopard, tiger, etc. Among the domestic animals are the cat and the dog, but no fowls. Nor are song-birds found, except as strays from passing flocks. Mineral Resources. Shut in as Tibet is, both politically and physically, little is as yet known of its geology. It is, however, supposed to be rich in minerals, and gold, silver, iron, and coal are mentioned. Gold-washing is a common oc- cupation in some parts and small quantities of gold-dust are exported : but mining is prohibited. The gold-fields lie in the district known as Thok Jolang. in the southwestern part of the Chang- tang, and there Littlcdale found mining opera- tions carried on six months of the year, ex- clusively by Lhasa people. Lapis lazuli and other semi-precious stones, as well as gems, are extensively used for personal adornment by both sexes, and it is supposed the country must be rich in these. The Kuen-lun IMountains have for many centuries been the chief source of the jade supplies of China, and in Europe and America fine specimens of heliotrope jadeite are shown reputedly of Tibetan origin; but the true prov- enance of the specimens is not known. Agriculture. Farming and the tending of flocks and herds are the chief occupations, but, owing to the elevated and rugged nature of the coimtry, both are attended with many hard- ships. The entire Chang-tang is nncultivable, and it is only at elevations lesg than 13,500 feet that the growing of barley — the hardiest of all the cereals, and the chief article of food in Tibet — becomes possible. The other crops are wheat, buckwheat, cabbages, potatoes, turnips, radishes, and pulse, and among the fruits, apples, apricots (especially in the w'cstern province), and peaches, and in the south ]iomegranates and jujubes. A little rice is produced in the south, but the main supply is imported. Industries. Tibet has no factories, but many minor industries are carried on in the settled districts, and the people are reputed to be skill- ful weavers, potters, and metal-workers. Derge in Eastern Tibet is noted for its swords, guns, teapots, tinder-boxes, and bells, as well as for its saddlery. An excellent kind of serge called pulo is produced everywhere. CoMiiERCE. The chief products of Tibet are wool, lambskins, lynx, fox, leopard, and other skins, yak-tails, used in India as chowries or fly-flaps, deers' horns; musk, rhubarb, gold-dust, precious stones, borax, nitre, salt, and live stock. Much of the wool goes to Kashmir to be manu- factured into the famous Kashmir shawls. In exchange for these, Tibet receives tea, cotton and cotton goods, silk, sugar, and tobacco from both China and India: satins, gold brocades, red leather, chinaware, gun-barrels, hardware, drugs, and flour from China; leather and saddles from Mongolia : broadcloth, indigo, spices, coral-beads, and pearls from India ; rice from Sikkim ; and saffron from Kashmir. Tibetans are great con- sinners of tea, and it has been estimated that over 13.000.000 pounds of brick tea are received annually from China alone. The preferred me- dium of exchange is the Indian rupee, but much of the business of the country is mere barter. Transportation and Communication. Lhasa, the capital, is the great central mart, from which trade routes radiate in all directions: to China by way of Cbiamdo, Bat'ang, Li- t'ang, and Darehendo, in Eastern Tibet ; north- east through the Ts'aidam and Ku-ku-nor to Kan-su and Mongolia ; westward to Gartok in the Province of Nari on the borders of Kashmir, where a great market is held in August and Sep- tember; northwest to Riulock, a frontier post, the emporium for the trade with Leh. Another trail leads through Gyantse, Khamba-jong, and the recently opened British-Tibetan mart Ya- tung (q.v. ) to Kalimpong and Darjiling in Sik- kim; another leads through Shigatse to Bhutan, or through lilam on the southwest to Nepal. Transportation is diflieult and tedious, most of these journeys requiring months to complete. Robbers are numerous and bold, hence traders travel in large companies; the pack-animals are yaks, mules, ponies, and where the road is too stony for the yak, sheep are used, one sheep carrying 25 to 30 pounds. Food, fodder, and tents must be carried; the passes are precipitous and frequently blocked with snow. The animals are never housed by the way. and the mortality among them is very great. In the settled parts of the country the streams are usually bridged. or if unfordable they can be crossed in round wicker-work boats covered with skins, the ani- mals swinmiing. Go'ERnment. For adniini.strative purposes the territory, subject to the Lhasa Government, represents 4 provinces (Nari. Tsang, Wu. and Khams). and is divided into 53 jongs or prefec- tures and 123 sub-jongs. At the head of each jong are two jongpons of equal rank, one a lay-
