TIBET. 269 TIBET. man, and one a lama, with civil, military, and judicial jurisdiction. Under these are the local magistrates, headmen, and elders. Over all is the Amban or Imperial Minister Resident at Lhasa, who is the intermediary between the local Government and Peking. He is charged with the supervision of the foreign relations of the country, and settles all difficulties which may arise between the tribes. Taxes are paid in kind. The regular army consists of 9000 men, 3000 of whom are usually at home on half pay. A militia force of 65^000 can be called out at any time. Population. Judging from a partial census taken in 1737, and the statements of travelers since then, it is safe to assert that within the bounds given in this article to Tibet the popula- tion does not exceed 3,500,000, of whom at least 500,000 are lamas; in 1737 there were 316,200 in Wu-Tsang alone. JIany influences are at work to keep down the population, among which may be mentioned the absence of immigration, the prevalence of polyandry and of celibacy among the lamaists, and the ravages of smallpox, which is always e])idemie, and carries off vast num- bers every year. Religion. Bi'in, the indigenous religion of the country, is a kind of Shamanism (q.v. ). It still has many adherents, especially in Eastern Tibet ; but the State religion, and the prevailing one, is the corrupt form of Buddhism called Lamaisra (q,v,). There are several sects, but the most powerful is the Gelugpa, which constitutes the established Church, (See Tsoxg-k'a-pa.) Follow- ers of this sect wear yellow caps as distinct from the unreformed Nyingmepas, who wear red caps, and are the next most powerful sect. The lamas or monks are very numerous, dwell in great monasteries, frequently called lamaseries, of which there are said to be over 3000, some of them of immense size, having accommodation for from 3000 to 10,000 persons. They are com- monly considered to be repositories of great wealth. Education is chiefly in the hands of the lamas. Ethnology. Judged by their language alone, Tibetans proper belong to the Tibeto-Indo-Chi- nese branch of Keane's Homo Moiifioliciis. Phys- ically, however, they exhibit marked variations, there being present at least two types — one Mon- goloid, the other a somewhat slender figure, thin, prominent, often aquiline nose, straight eyes, and long, sometimes wavy, hair. In the permanently settled portions of the country, where centres of population have existed for centuries, the people have varied considerably from the orig- inal type, the result being a mixed race, becom- ing more Chinese as one goes toward China, or more Indian (Nepalese or Kashmiri) as one travels southward or westward. This mixture is in part due to the concubinage of native women with foreign traders, soldiers, pilgrims, officials, etc., and in part to the system of poly- andry. Jlonogamy prevails among the nomads, but elsewhere polyandry is common, one woman becoming the wife of i;he brothers of a family, the oldest being considered the father of all the children, the others being regarded merely as 'uncles.' There is also some polygamy among the wealthy, as in China. History. The early history of Tibet is leg- endary and obscure. In the middle of the eighth century Tibet extended from Kuku-nor and Ladukh on the north into India in the south, wliile on the east the tribesmen came into fre- quent conflict with China, and it is recorded that they even entered Chang-an, the capital, in 763. In 747 the famous Indian wizard and teacher, Padma-sambhava, had arrived; he made a long missionary journey through the country, everywiiere vanquishing the Slianianistic devils, and laid the foundation of Lamaism. In 749 the first monastery was built. Jlunitsanpo came to the throne in 789. In order to better the condi- tion of the poor, he compelled the rich to share their wealth with the indigent. This leveling process was unsuccessful. Lang-dharma, who died in 899, left only minor sons; the kingdom was broken up into two, later into a'number of petty principalities, and it was easy for Genghis Khan to incorporate Tibet into his empire in 1206. Kublai Khan, the conqueror of China, actively promoted the spread of Buddhism throughout the Mongol Empire. Buddhism having entered from India and China in the first half of the seventh century, the language was reduced to writing, the translation of the sacred books was begun, and about 650 the first temple — the Lab- rang, at Lhasa — was erected. From this time forth the internal historj- of Tibet is the history of the struggle of Buddhism (already corrupt) with the indigenous Shamanism (q.v.), the rise and development of Lamaism (q.v.) and the Lamaistic hierarcliy, the abolition of the kingly dignity and the establishment of the supremacy of the Grand Lama at Lhasa as the head of both Church and State. In 1270 he made the chief of the Sakya sect head of the Church, and con- ferred on him the temporal power. Near the end of the fourteenth century arose Tsong-k'a-pa (q.v.), the great reformer, through whose ef- forts Lamaism was purified somewhat, and a new and powerful sect, the Gelugpa, was founded. In 1642 Kushri Khan, the Mongol Prince of Ku- ku-nor, conquered Tibet, and in 1645 made over the sovereignty of it to the Grand Lama of the time, with the title of Dalai (or Tale) Lama, He has continued ever since to be both the head of the State and the head of the Church, the Chinese Empire having confirmed him in both offices in 1650. In 1717 the Sungars invaded the country, but were driven out by Chinese .armies in 1720, when Eastern Tibet was placed under the direct rule of Chinese officials, a Kansu and Sge-ehuer. In 1774 Warren Hastings sent from India an envoy to negotiate friendly commercial relations between Tibet and the British East India Company. He was well received. Another embassy was sent under Turner in 1783. but his efforts were made futile by the policy of the company under the administration of Lord Corn- wallis, who. under treaty engagements with Nepal, assisted the Gurkhas when in 1790 they invaded Tibet and plundered Tashilunpo. They were driven out in 1792, and since then the passes between India and Tibet have been closed. In 1893 a convention was signed opening Ya- tung (q.v.) on the Tibetan frontier as a Brit- ish trade-mart. The list of Europeans who have entered Tibet in more recent times comprises Eagle in 1774; Turner in 1783; Manning in
