TURGENIEFF. 552 TURGOT. liberal in tone, on the death of Gogol, he was forbidden to leave hia estate. After two years he was pariUmed through the influence of powerful friends, and left Russia in 1855. The remainder of his life was spent abroad, mainly in Paris, in close friendship with the famous singer Pauline Viardot-Garcia and her family. Of his few visits to Russia, that in 1879, and especially that in 1880, when he was feted as no one else at the Pushkin festival, were the most memorable. In 1881 he visited Russia for the last time. He died at his Bougival villa, near Paris, in 1883, and was buried at Saint Petersburg in the Volk- off Cemetery, the funeral procession exceeding anything of the kind previously witnessed in Russia. The great fame of Turgenieff rests on his Yakoff Pasynkoff (1855) ; Rtidin, Faust (1856) ; Asyu (1858); Xobles' Xest or Liza (ISoO): On the Eve, or First Love (1860), and Futlurs uiid Sons (1862). The works of the preceding period ■were devoted to pleading the cause of the serfs against their owners; in these later works, Tur- genieff turned to the mental and moral bank- ruptcy of the upper classes as resulting from a life of idleness amid hundreds of overworked serfs. Fathers and Sons marks an important point in Turgeniett's career. Its hero, Bazaroff, a young student disdaining all but utilitarian science, was called by the author by the newly coined name nihilist, meaning 'a man who looks at everything from a critical point of view,' With one or two exceptions the radical critics savagely attacked what was considered a cari- cature on the young generation. With the reac- tionaries Nihilism soon became equivalent to 're- spect for nothing,' or 'political unreliability," and this helped to widen still further the breach with the liberals. The animosity of TurgenietT's critics turned the melancholy manifest in his earlier works into pessimism, and his Stnoke (1867) de- picted the whole liberal movement of 'the sixties' as a mirage, ^'irf|in Soil (1870) pictured the 'new' generation of 'the seventies.' Here Tur- genieflf fully applied his favorite division of all people into two types, a classification proclaimed by him in the essay Hamlet and Don Quixote in 1860 — Hamlet representing endless self-analy- sis and skepticism ; Don Quixote, enthusiastic devotion to the ideal. But Turgenieff, living abroad, could no longer be a faithful painter of the new social currents in Russian life. Clara Uilitch (188.3), in spite of its mystical effect, is a story of the real life of the great Russian singer and actress Kadmina, who ended life by suicide on the stage of Kharkoff, His Senilia. or Prose Poems (1883), are poetic gems in the most perfect prose. TurgeniefT, the lineal literary descendant of Pushkin, is the greatest prose-artist in the history of Russian letters. His figures do not stand out boldly against the background, but form an har- monious organic part of the whole scheme, and as such impress one still more forcibly when the whole scheme is comprehended. The language of TurgeniefT has been at once a model and source of despair for the young Russian writers. His influence on modern literature has been very great, and many young French writers consider themselves his pupils. The latest edition of his works appeared in 10 vols. (Saint Peter.sburg, 1891 ) . An excellent English translation by Con- stance Garnett appeared in 14 vols. (London, 1894-97 ) , with short introductions to the novels. TURGENIEFF, 'Xikol.« Ivaxovitch ( 1790- 1871). A Russian liistorian. brother of Alex- ander Ivanovitch. He studied at Gottingen, en- tered the civil service, and in 1813 was associated as Russian commissary with Baron Stein in gov- erning the German provinces taken from France. He was afterwards Deputy Secretary of the In- terior and Agriculture in Russia. He advocated the emancipation of the serfs, and in 1825 was sentenced to death in contumaciam, for his con- nection with the insurrection of the Decembrists. He lived thenceforth in Paris, where he published La liassie ct les Russes (1847). TURGITE (from Turginsk, a copper mine in the Ural Jlountains). A hydrated ferric oxide that is found massive, with a dull earthy lustre, and is reddish-black to dark-red in color. It is found in the Urals, in Prussia, and in the United States at Salisbury, Conn., where it occurs in large botryoidal masses with limonite. This mineral is regarded as an intermediate stage in the alteration of limonite to hematite by the loss of water, and is a valuable ore of iron. TURGOR (Lat., a swelling). The condition of a [ilant cell when it is stretched by the in- ternal pressure of the cell sap. The word is also applied to the stretching force. The mature plant cell usuall.v consists of a protoplasmic bod}-, sur- rounded by an elastic membrane composed of cellulose and other materials, and inclosing one or more vacuoles filled with water, the cell sap. Tliis is not pure water, but a solution of various substances, whose total osmotic pressure (see Osmosis) is usually equal to 4-6 atmospheres, and sometimes rises as high as 20 atmospheres. Whenever such a cell is surrounded by a solution of lower osmotic pressure, water will enter the cell and find its way to the vacuole. On accoimt of the high osmotic pressure, the protoplasm is driven outward against the cell wall as water enters, and the cell wall itself is stretched (unless this is prevented by the opposing pressure of ad- jacent cells) until its resilience balances the out- ward pressure. This stretched state of the cell is favorable for growth (q.v. ) , and is the opposite of the condition known as plasmolysis ( q.v. ) . Turgor may be reduced by the withdrawal of water from the cell, either by evaporation or by surrounding the cell with a solution of higher osmotic pressure than that inside it. Turgor of all the cells of a tissue renders the mass rigid. By the combined turgidity of all the tissues in the young parts of the plant or those whose cells are thin-walled (e.g. leaves), such parts main- tain their normal form. When turgor diminishes, the parts become flaccid. TURGOT, tur'go', Anne Robert •J.cques, Baron de I'Aulne ( 1727-81 ) . A French economist and statcsnuin. He was born in Paris. May 10. 1727, of an old family of Normandy, and was destined for an ecclesiastical career, but after studying for a time at the Sorbonne, where he Avon some dis- tinction, he turned from the Church and devoted hini.self to the study of jurisprudence and po- litical economy. In these fields he allied himself with the philosophical and liberal thought of his time. He was a contributor to the Encuclojii'die and became a member of the physiocratic school of economists. He became councilor to the Parle-
