UNIVERSITY. 740 UNIVERSITY. its giving examination and conferring degrees, "while the latter became an affiliated college. A ■College of Mines was later established. The at- tendance in the constituent colleges at Dunedin, Christchurch, Auckland, ^'ellington, and Canter- bury was 783 in 1901. The Universities of India, ^ritli the dates of their establishment, are as follows: Calcutta, 1857; Bombay, 18.57; Madras, 1857; Punjab, 1883; and Allahabad, for the Northwest Prov- inces (United Provinces of Agra), in 1887. For the most part the instruction is given in numerous affiliated colleges. Faculties in arts and philosophy, medicine, law science, and engineering exist. Instruction is usually given in English, though in the Oriental College of the Punjab University instruction is in the vernacular. The more than fifty colleges of the University of Punjab are affiliated with the Uni- versity of Cambridge. French Universi'ties take their origin from the University of Paris, the first great university of Northern Europe. ( See Paris, Univer.sity of. ) In the greater part of the nineteentli century the word university had a widely different mean- ing in France from that which it conveyed in other countries, the term 'Universite de France' being nearly equivalent to 'national system of education of France.' The French Revolution put an end to the universities of the ancicn regime, and the attempts of the Convention to establish similar institutions were short-lived. Napoleon organized a comprehensive system of higher education in one unified whole — the Uni- versity of France. This was placed directly under the control of the Government, admin- istered from Paris, and made an instrument of government in the hands of the central power. Higher education was given under fifteen facul- ties in each of the educational districts. These faculties were preeminently examining and de- gree-conferring bodies. The courses of study were strictly controlled from Paris, and the work was almost wholly of a professional and practical character. This organization, with various alter- ations, continued until 1896. While the various faculties of law, theology, medicine, science, and literature existed in most of the different edu- cational districts, the so-called academies, in no case save at Paris were they organized into a university. The law of 1896, which went into effect January 1, 1898, created fifteen au- tonomovis universities in place of the previous unified university with scattei'cd faculties. While much of the control of the institution is still exercised by the Minister of Education and the authorities at Paris, yet much local autonomy is exercised in respect to examinations, degrees, and supplementary courses of instruction. The support of these institutions is now left largely to the localities. This stimulates local pride and activity, and many of the localities have made great additions to the material equipment and plant of the institution. Private munifi- cence can now also be accepted, and it has been given in some instances. The imiversities in the smaller towns, however, have suffered consid- erably from the change, for while the change has largely increased the student attendance, yet this has been for the most part to the advantage of the universities in large cities, such as Paris, Bordeaux, and Lyons. The local universities are also under the necessity of supporting the course of study given outside of the State programme. The reform of 1S9G was quite as important in regard to methods of study as in regard to ad- ministration. New emphasis is laid upon the work of investigation. The professional student is now given an opportunit}' for doing this, and in some faculties is expected to do it previous to receiving a degree. The change has especially benefited the Faculty of Science and Arts, which previously had had no regular students, since all courses were public and free and wore consequently at- tended chicHy ))y chance comers. The same re- form provided for the opening of the universities to foreigners and the reestablishment of the doc- torate. The attendance of foreigners, especially Americans, has increased constantly since the re- forms were instituted. The number of professor- ships has also been largely increased. The uni- versity system now includes two faculties of Protestant theolog}', thirteen faculties of law, seven faculties of medicine, fifteen faculties of science, fifteen faculties of letters, and four mixed faculties (Boj-deaux, Lille, Lyons, Toulouse). The local universities in addition to the four just mentioned are Paris, Aix, Marseilles, Besangon, Caen. Clermont, Dijon, Montpellier, Nancy, Poitiers, and Kennes. German, Austrian, and S^viss Universities. The earl}' German universities were modeled after the University of Paris, though the Univer- sity of Bologna had considerable influence on the universities of the South German States; and it is in the German universities that the general organization or structure of the mediipval univer- sities is best preserved. Unlike the early uni- versities of France and Italy, those of Germanv were not of gradual growth, but were all created and chartered by both King and Pope and often by the Emperor as well. There were seven of these founded in the period to which all the early imiversities belong, that is, to the period previous to the Renaissance movement. The earliest of all was that of Pra.gue. authorized b,v Pope Clement VI. in 1347, and by the Emperor Charles IV. in the following year. Then followed Vienna, in 1365; Heidelberg, in 1386; Cologne, in 1388: Erfurt, in 1393; Leipzig, in 1409; and Rostock, in 1419. It is only this group of Ger- man universities that incorporated the original organization into nations, and even in these the nations ceased to have any essential importance in the sixteenth century. Leipzig grew out of a secession of 5000 students and teachers from Prague, owing to hostility between the German and Bohemian students, and consequently the organization into nations was important, and continued to exist as a form until the nineteenth century. All these universities yet exist, save Cologne and Erfurt, which disappeared during the period of the French Revolution. The human- istic movement of the fifteenth and early six- teenth century produced nine new universities, four of which. Greifswald. Freiburg, Basel, and Tiibingen, still exist. One of the others. Witten- berg (founded 1502), was the most influential of all during the later part of the sixteenth century. The third period in the history of German universities is that of the Reformation and Counter-reformation, to the close of the seven- teenth century. Twenty new foundations date from these two centuries, ten of them Protestant
