UTICA. 780 UTILITARIANISM. cultivation of roses are other important indus- tries of the surrounding district. In manufac- turing Utica ranks eighth among the cities of the State, its various industrial establishments in the census year 1900 having $19,289,502 in- vested capital and a production valued at $19,- 550,850. The leading manufactures are men's clothing, hosiery and knit goods, cotton and woolen goods, steam fittings and heating appa- ratus, foundry and machine-shop products, malt liquors, lumVier products, and saddler}' and har- ness. For maintenance and operation the city spends annually about $650,000. The chief items are: schools, $200,000; fire department, $75,000; municipal lighting, $03,000; police department, $41,000; interest on debt, $33,000; streets, $30,- 000; and garbage removal, $23,000. The net debt in 1902 was $064,085; and the assessed valuation of property (real and personal) was $32,754,592. The population in 1820 was 2972; in 1850, 17,505; in 1880, 33,914; in 1890, 44,007; in 1900, 56,383. Utica was settled about 1786 on the site of Fort Schuyler, which in 1758 had been erected to control the fording place of the Mohawk. Un- til 1798, when it was incorpoi'ated as a town under its present name, Utica was known as 'Old Fort Schuyler.' It was reincorporated in 1805, and received a city charter in 1832. Its growth was slow until after the completion of the Erie Canal in 1825. Consult: Bagg (editor). Memorial History of Vtica (Syracuse, 1892); and Brown, Butcher, and Goodale, Outline His- tory of Utica and Ticinity (Utica, 1900). UTICA (Lat., from Gk. OiVixii, Outike, 'Ituk^, Ifyke). An ancient city of Africa, at the north- west extremity of the Gulf of Tunis, and about 20 miles from the city of Tunis. It was oije of the oldest Phoenician settlements on the African coast, though the traditional date of its founda- tion (about B.C. 1100) seems to rest on no good evidence. Like the other Phcenician cities, it acknowledged the supremacy of the Carthagin- ians, though its position was rather that of ally than subject. It was captured by Agathocles in his invasion of Africa at the beginning of the fhird century n.c, and played an important part in the Punic Wars. Early submission to Rome in the Third Punic War was rewarded with a large sliare of Carthaginian territory. In the war be- tween Cipsar and Pompeins it became famous as a rallying point of the Pompeians after the bat- tle of Pharsalia, being occupied by Cato, and the scene of his suicide after Csesar's victory at Thapsus. Utica became a free city under Csesar and it received further privileges from Augus- tus. It was destroyed by the Arabs toward the end of the seventh century. Its rather in- significant ruins lie west of the river known to the ancients as Bagradas. The site of the city was anciently on the shore about 27 Roman miles northwest of Carthage, but on account of changes in the coast line, caused by the river Bagradas, the spot is at present inland. UTXEL, oo-te-al'. A town of Valencia, Spain, 45 miles west of the city of Valencia (Map: Spain, E 3). The principal manufactures are wine, brandy, silk and linen fabrics, and pot- tery. Municipal population, in 1900, 11,500. UTILITARIANISM (from utilitarian, from utility, from Lat. utilitas, usefulness, profit, from utilis, useful, from uti, to use). The name of the theory of ethics (q.v.) that adopts, as the criterion of riglit and wrong, of good and bad, the tendency of an action to produce the happi- ness of mankind. John Stuart Mill claims to have coined the word, which was suggested to him by the use of the term 'utilitarian' in Gait's Annals of the Parish. The doctrine of utility is opposed to all those theories that refer us to some internal sense, feeling, or sentiment, for the test of riglit and wrong; a test usually described bj- such phrases as a moral sense, conscience, innate moral dis- tinctions, whence utility is sometimes termed the external or objective standard of morality. It is also opposed to the view that founds moral distinctions on the mere arbitrary will of God. Again, it is opposed to the view that the pleas- ure-giving value of an act to the agent is the test of its goodness or badness ( individualistic hedonism) . The utilitarian theory is distinctively a modern theory. All ancient hedonisms were individual- istic; i.e. the happiness of the agent and not that of his fellow beings was regarded as the ultimate end of all rational action. This is true even of Christianity in so far as it is hedonistic, for the ultimate appeal in Christianity is to the individual's desire for everlasting happiness, al- though along with this appeal is another to a benevolent desire for the happiness of one's neigh- bors. In the Greek hedonistic systems what- ever regard is paid to the well-being of others is in the last analysis based on the fact that such consideration for others brings pleasure to one's self. In modern times Hobbes is the fore- most representative of this ancient or individual- istic hedonism. Hutcheson (q.v.) is perhaps the first writer on ethics who advocated the prin- ciple of the 'greatest happiness of the greatest number,' in this way transcending the limitations of egoism (q.v.). There are utilitarian tenden- cies in Hume (q.v.) and even in Locke. Abraham Tucker (q.v.) is also to be mentioned as one of the early Utilitarians (1705-74). But Paley (q.v.) and Bentham (q.v.), especially the latter, are to be credited with giving such popular ex- pression to this view that it became current in all centres of English thought. With Bentham the theory was used as a foundation, not merely of ethics, but also of political and legal reforms. Having in view the necessitj' of sacrificing small- er interests to greater, or. at all events, of not sacrificing greater interests to smaller, he de- scribed the ethical end as 'the greatest happiness of the greatest number.' He illustrated the doc- trine by setting it in opposition to asceticism, and to sympathy and antipathy. Asceticism he interpreted to mean the principle that pleas- ure should be forfeited, and pain incurred, with- out expectation of any compensation. By the principle of sympathy and antipathy he means "the principle which approves or disapproves of certain actions, not on account of their tend- ing to augment the happiness, nor yet on ac- count of their tending to diminish the happiness of the party whose interest is in question, but merely because a man finds himself disposed to approve or disapprove of them : holding up that approbation or disapprobation as a sufficient reason for itself, and disclaiming the necessity of looking out for any extrinsic ground." Ac-
