The New Latin Primer/Part 1

by John Percival Postgate

THE

NEW LATIN PRIMER.

Part I.

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INTRODUCTORY AND ACCIDENCE.

§ 1. Language.—Language is one of the means by which human beings communicate their thoughts to each other. In language this is done by means of spoken sounds. Different nations do this in different ways, and hence arise different languages.

§ 2. The Latin Language.—Latin was the language spoken by the Latins, who lived in a district of ancient Italy called Latium. Of all the Latins the most important and powerful were the Romans, or inhabitants of Rome. The Romans were a great conquering people. First they subdued their fellow-countrymen the Latins, then the other nations of Italy, and finally a very large part of Europe and Asia and some portions of Africa. They carried their language with them; and it has thus come about that a great many languages spoken at the present day are descended from Latin. Such are the French, the Italian, the Spanish, and the Portuguese. Our own English language is full of words which are taken from Latin; but many of them have quite a different meaning from what they had in Latin. During the Middle Ages, though Latin had ceased to be the language of the people, it still continued to be used on public occasions all over Europe. All important books were written in Latin; and it was the language used in making laws and treaties, and in conducting trials. Even now scholars write books and make speeches in Latin; and the Roman Catholic Church still uses it in its services.

§ 3. Latin differed somewhat in the different periods at which it was spoken. The Latin with which we have to do was that spoken and written in the first century B.C. and the first century A.D., and may be called "Classical Latin."

§ 4. The Elements of Language.—The Latin language, like all other languages, was spoken in Sentences. Sentences are made up of Words, each expressing a separate notion or idea, such as homo man, niger black, ego I.

Words are composed of Syllables. Syllables are the smallest portions of words which can be pronounced separately. Thus, ho-mo consists of two syllables, because we can pronounce ho separately and mo separately; but we cannot pronounce the h without the first o, nor the m without the second o. A word of one syllable is called a Mono-syllable, one of two syllables a Dissyllable, one of three syllables a Trisyllable, and one of more than three a Polysyllable.

Syllables are composed of single Sounds. Thus, -mo consists of the sound m and the sound o. Sounds are either Vowels or Consonants. Vowels are sounds which can be pronounced by themselves; Consonants are sounds which can be pronounced only when combined with other sounds. Thus a vowel can form a syllable, as e in e-go, a consonant cannot.

When two vowels are pronounced so quickly as to be included in the same syllable, they are called a Diphthong. Thus, in poe-nae punishments oe and ae are diphthongs, because we pronounce poe-nae. In poeta poet, on the other hand, oe is not a diphthong, because we pronounce po-eta.

A mark called, a diæresis is sometimes used to show that two vowels do not form a diphthong, e.g. poëta.

§ 5. Sounds and Letters.—It is most important to distinguish between these. Sounds are what we actually utter with our voices and hear with our ears when we are speaking a language. Letters are the signs which we use to represent the sounds when we are writing it down. It often happens that the letters do not represent the sounds exactly. Sometimes different sounds are represented by the same letter, sometimes the same sound is represented by different letters.

§ 6.The English and the Latin Alphabets.—The English alphabet was originally taken from the Latin alphabet, and the letters in it had the same sounds as in Latin. But the pronunciation of English has changed so much in course of time that there is very little resemblance between the sounds which the letters have now and those which they had when they were taken from the Latin alphabet. Hence, when we read or speak Latin, we must not think of how the letters are pronounced in English, but give them their proper Latin sounds.

§ 7. The Latin Alphabet.—The following were the letters of the Latin alphabet:—

A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U X Y Z.

Of these K is hardly ever used except in abbreviations, and Y and Z only in words borrowed from the Greek.^[1]

The Latin alphabet may be classified as follows:—

I. Letters standing for Vowels: A E O with Y. 2. Letters standing for Consonants: B C D F G K L M N P Q R S T.

3. Letters standing sometimes for Vowels and sometimes for Consonants: I U.

Besides these there are:—

4. Letters standing for two Consonants: X Z.

5. H, which stands for a mere breathing, the English h.

On comparing the Latin alphabet with the English, it will be seen that neither W, nor J, nor V was found in the Latin alphabet.

The device of using J and V to distinguish the consonantal sounds of I and U from their vowel sounds, is not older than the sixteenth century A.D. And now J is no longer printed in the best editions, and in many V is given up too.

In this book, the consonantal sound of I will be distinguished from the vowel sound by a difference of type; while U u will be used for the vowel sound of U, and V v for the consonantal sound.^[2] Thus we shall write Iuppiter Jupiter, iuga yokes, verba words.

§ 8. Pronunciation of the Latin Letters:—

1. Vowels. The vowels differed in pronunciation according as they were short or long. Thus the short e (written ĕ) in ĕs you-are was a different vowel sound from the long e (written ē) in ēs you-eat.

There were six vowels in Latin, pronounced nearly as follows :

Latin Vowel.	English Sound.
A	ă as in aha!	ā as bah!
E	ĕ as in met	ē as French é in état (E. state).[3]
I	ĭ as in skit	ī as ee in feet.
O	ŏ as in not	ō as French o in chose (E. note).[3]
U	ŭ as oo in wood	ū as oo in woo' d.
Y	as French u in lune.

2. Diphthongs. There were also six diphthongs: AE, AU, OE, EU, EI, UI—the last three being rarely used. They are produced by pronouncing, the separate vowels which compose them so quickly that they appear to form but one sound.

3. Consonants. To be pronounced as in English, with the following exceptions:—

C always hard as k.	G always hard as g in get.
R rolled as in French.	S always sharp as in hiss.
I consonant (J) as Eng. y.
U consonant (or V) as Eng. w.

4. Compound Consonants:—

X always like ks.	Z as dz as in adze.
BS, BT as ps, pt.

For further details see § 251–256.

The Common English Pronunciation of Latin.—The common pronunciation of Latin in England is to pronounce it as if it were English.

§ 9. Quantity.—Quantity is a word which is applied to vowels and to syllables, and it means the time that they take to pronounce.

Every vowel has a natural quantity of its own. It is either short or long.

Long vowels take twice as long to pronounce as short ones. Thus, in ămā love! (Imperative) we must let our voice dwell twice as long on the second a as on the first and pronounce the vowels as in English aha!

Where a naturally short vowel is followed by two or more consonants, it is often said to be long by position; as in est is, which is of the same length as ī go! In such cases it is more correct to say the syllable is long. The vowel is pronounced just as short as before, but the vowel and the two consonants taken together take up the time of one long vowel.

The rules for the quantity of particular vowels will be given later. But it must be observed here that all diphthongs are long, e.g. po͞ena͞e punishments; and all vowels which stand immediately before another vowel or diphthong are short, as dĕa͞e goddesses. This is also the case if they are only separated by h, as in vĕhō I-carry.

In what follows we shall mark the quantity of the vowel.

Vowels marked thus: ă are short.

Vowels marked thus: ā are long.

Vowels marked thus: ā̆ are sometimes short and sometimes long. They are called common.

Vowels left unmarked may be pronounced short.

For more, see § 441 sqq.

§ 10. Accent.—Besides quantity, Latin possessed Accent. Accent means that one syllable of a word, called the accented syllable, is pronounced with more force and in a higher tone than the other syllables, which are called the unaccented syllables. The difference between the accented and unaccented syllables in Latin was much less than in English; and both must be pronounced clearly and distinctly, and with their proper quantity.

The following are the chief rules for the place of the accent:—

Only Monosyllables have it on the last syllable (called the Ultimate) as mél.

Dissyllables have it on the last but one (called the Penultimate) as péstis.

Trisyllables and Polysyllables have it on the last but one if that syllable is long, as vulnĕrā́bunt, otherwise on the last but two as vúlnĕrō.

§ 11.The Parts of Speech.—Words are divided into the following classes, called Parts of Speech:—

A Noun (or Substantive) gives the name of something: lĭbĕr book, ăquă water, Caesar Cæsar.

Names of particular persons or places are called Proper Nouns, as Caesar Cæsar, Rōmă Rome, to distinguish them from other Nouns which are called Common.

An Adjective (Adj.) describes something, or gives its quality: ăquă dulcĭs sweet water.

Pronouns are used for Nouns and for Adjectives. They point out something, or describe it less definitely than an Adjective: ĭs he, quīdam lĭbĕr a-certain book.

Verbs show what people do, or what is done to them, or in what state they are: vulnĕrō I-wound, vulnĕrŏr I-am-wounded, stō I-stand.

Adverbs are used to qualify Verbs and Adjectives: cĕlĕrĭtĕr vĕnĭt quickly he-comes, valdē bŏnŭs very good.

Prepositions and Conjunctions have no meaning by themselves.

A Preposition is used with a Noun or Pronoun to show its connexion with the rest of the sentence. Thus, fŭgiunt ăd nāvēs they-fly to the-ships.

Conjunctions are mere links. They couple words or sentences. Thus, cănĭs ĕt vulpēs the-dog and the-fox, vĕniam sī rŏgābĭs I-will-come if you-ask-me.

Interjections are cries expressing feelings or desires: heu! alas! st! hush!

There is no Article in Latin : dĭēs means day, a day, or the day according to the context.

§ 12. Inflexions.—The changes which words undergo in order to become parts of a sentence are called Inflexions. Inflexions are found in English. Thus we cannot make a sentence out of "Cæsar," "friend," "die," until we have added the proper endings, as "Cæsar's friend dies." In Latin there are a great many more inflexions than in English, and they are used to express what English expresses by means of Prepositions and of Verbs like be, shall, do: dăbĭt lĭbrum Caesărī give-will-he the-book Cæsar-to, that is, he will give the book to Cæsar.

In Inflexion part of the word remains unchanged, and this we call the base; the rest of the word we call the termination or ending. Thus in rĕgĭt he rules, rĕgunt they rule, rĕgēns ruling, rĕg- rule is the Base, and -ĭt, -unt, -ēns, the Terminations.

It is the province of the part of Grammar called Accidence to tell us what are the Inflexions of a word. It is the province of the part called Syntax to tell us how and when to use them.

The different inflexions that a Noun can take are called its Declensions, and to give the inflexions of a Noun is to Decline it. The different inflexions that a Verb can take are called its Conjugations, and to give the inflexions of a Verb is to Conjugate it.

§ 13. Inflexion of Nouns.—Nouns belong to different Genders; and their inflexions denote differences of Number and Case.

§ 14. Number.—There are two Numbers, the Singular (Sing.) used in speaking of one, the Plural (Plur.) used in speaking of more than one.

§ 15. Gender.—Gender is the Class (gĕnŭs) to which a Noun belongs. There are three Genders—Masculine (Masc. or M.), Feminine (Fem. or F.), and Neuter (Neut. or N.). The names of male persons are Masculine, the names of female persons are Feminine, the names of things may be either Masculine, Feminine, or Neuter. Words which can be used both as Masculine and as Feminine are said to be Common.

The Gender of Nouns is shown by the Termination of the Adjectives which go with them. Thus in mōns altŭs a high mountain, the -ŭs in alt-ŭs shows us that mōns is masc. ; in dŏmŭs altă a high house, the -ă shows us dŏmŭs is fem.

§ 16. Cases.—Cases are used to show the relations of Nouns to other words in the sentence.

There are Seven Cases in Latin, of which one, the Locative, is rarely used. The following are their chief usages:

The Nominative (Nom., N.) shows the person or thing spoken of, the subject of the sentence.

Vocative (Voc., V.) shows the person or thing addressed.

Accusative (Acc., A.) shows the person or thing directly acted on, the Direct Object of the Verb. Brūt-us (Nom.) Caesăr-em (Acc.) interfēcĭt Brutus killed Cæsar.

Genitive (Gen., G.) denotes that to which anything belongs. Caesărĭs hortī Cæsar’s gardens, tĭmŏr hostĭum fear of-the-enemy.

Dative (Dat., D.) denotes the person or thing indirectly affected by an action, that is, the Indirect Object. Thus, “him” in “I give him the book” would be translated by a Dative in Latin, dō ĕī lĭbrum. The Dat. is generally translated by using to or for.

Ablative (Abl.) has a great number of uses, for which see §§ 148 sqq. It is often translated by by, with, or from.

The above six cases are those usually given in declining a Noun.

The Locative (Loc.) properly denotes the place where anything is done; as Rōmae at-Rome. It is only used in the Singular, and is rare except in names of places of the First and Second Declensions. In the Plural the Abl. is always used instead.

The Acc., Gen., Dat., Abl., and Loc. are called the Oblique cases.

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DECLENSION OF NOUNS.

§ 17. Nouns are distributed into Five Declensions. In Latin dictionaries the Declension to which a Noun belongs is shown by giving the inflexion of the Gen. Sing.

The Gen. Sing. of the First Declension ends in ae
„„Second„„ī
„„Third„„ĭs
„„Fourth„„ūs
„„Fifth„„ēī

General Rules of Declension.—In Neuter Nouns the Nom., Voc., and Acc. are always alike, and the Nom., Voc., and Acc. Plur. always end in ă.

The Nom. and Voc. of all Genders are alike, except in the Masc. Sing. of the Second Declension.

The Dat. and Abl. Plur. are always alike.

First Declension.

§ 18. The Nom. Sing. ends in -ă, except certain Greek nouns. See § 267.

Gender.—Feminine, except a few Nouns denoting male persons, as pŏētă poet.

Ex. hastă spear, base hast–.

	Sing.	Plur.
N.V.	hast-ă	hast-ae
A.	hast-am	hast-ās
G.	hast-ae	hast-ārum
D.	hast-ae	hast-īs
Abl.	hast-ā	hast-īs.

The Loc. Sing., when used, ends in -ae, as, Rōmae at-Rome.

Dĕă goddess has D. Abl. Pl. dĕ-ābŭs. See also § 266.

§ 19. The following is a Noun of the First Declension declined throughout, with the ordinary translations of the cases added. Nouns of other Declensions may be declined after the same model.

Singular.		Plural.
N.	mēnsă A table	mēnsae Tables
V.	mēnsă table!	mēnsae tables!
A.	mēnsam a table	mēnsās tables
G.	mēnsae of a table	mēnsārum of tables
D.	mēnsae to or for a table	mēnsīs to or for tables
Abl.	mēnsā by, with, or from a table	mēnsīs by, with, or from tables

The student should observe that the translation of the Nominative is distinguished from the translation of the Accusative by a capital letter: A table, Tables. The reason of this is that the Nominative is the case of the Subject, which usually begins the sentence in English.

Second Declension.

§ 20. The Nom. Sing, ends in -ŭs, -ĕr, or -um.

Gender.—Nouns in -ŭs and -ĕr generally Masculine, in -um Neuter.

Exx. dŏminus owner, master, base dŏmĭn-; bell-um war, base bell-.

	Sing.	Plur.
N.	dŏmĭn-ŭs	dŏmĭn-ī
V.	dŏmĭn-ĕ	dŏmĭn-ī
A.	dŏmĭn-um	dŏmĭn-ōs
G.	dŏmĭn-ī	dŏmĭn-ōrum
D.	dŏmĭn-ō	dŏmĭn-īs
Abl.	dŏmĭn-ō	dŏmĭn-īs

	Sing.	Plur.
N.V.A.	bell-um	bell-ă
G.	bell-ī	bell-ōrum
D.	bell-ō	bell-īs
Abl.	bell-ō	bell-īs.

The Locative, when used, ends in -ī as Cŏrinthī at Corinth.

Nouns in -ĕr.—These originally ended in -ĕr-ŭs (the Base ending in -ĕr), and have lost the inflexion of the Nom. and Voc. Singular. The majority also drop e before r, except in the same cases.

Exx. pŭĕr boy; ăgĕr field.

	Sing.	Plur.
N.V.	pŭĕr	pŭĕr-ī
A.	pŭĕr-um	pŭĕr-ōs
G.	pŭĕr-ī	pŭĕr-ōrum
D.	pŭĕr-ō	pŭĕr-īs
Abl.	pŭĕr-ō	pŭĕr-īs

	Sing.	Plur.
N.V.	ăgĕr	ăgr-ī
A.	ăgr-ŭm	ăgr-ōs
G.	ăgr-ī	ăgr-ōrum
D.	ăgr-ō	ăgr-īs
Abl.	ăgr-ō	ăgr-īs

A list of the Nouns in -ĕr which form their Genitive in -ĕrī is given in § 268.

vĭr man, G. vĭr-ī, is declined as puer. For G. Pl., see § 268.

In Nouns the base of which ends in -ĭ-, the Gen. Sing. is usually contracted. The Voc. Sing. of Roman Proper names in -ĭŭs, and of fīlĭŭs son, is also contracted. Thus, nĕgōtī (for nĕgōtĭī) of-business, fīlī (for fīlĭĕ) my son!

	Sing.	Plur.
N.	fīlĭ-ŭs	fīlĭ-ī
V.	fīlī	fīlĭ-ī
A.	fīlĭ-ŭm	fīlĭ-ōs
G.	fīlī or fīlĭ-ī	fīlĭ-ōrum
D.	fīlĭ-ō	fīlĭ-īs
Abl.	fīlĭ-ō	fīlĭ-īs

dĕŭs god is irregular.

	Sing.	Plur.
N.	dĕ-ŭs	dī, rarely dĕ-ī
V.	dĕ-ŭs	dī, rarely dĕ-ī
A.	dĕ-um	dĕ-ōs
G.	dĕ-ī	dĕ-ōrum or dĕ-um
D.	dĕ-ō	dīs, rarely dĕ-īs
Abl.	dĕ-ō	dīs, rarely dĕ-īs

For other irregularities, see §§ 269, 270.

Third Declension.

§ 21. The Nom. Sing. has many endings. Examples of the more frequent will be given below.

In this declension the Base of the Noun often appears in an altered form in the Nom. Sing. Thus the base of lĕō lion is lĕōn-, of hŏmo man, hŏmĭn-, of gĕnŭs kind, gĕnĕr-, of corpŭs body, corpŏr-. In order to decline a Noun of this declension it is not sufificient to know that it is of the Third Declension : we must also learn what its Gen. Sing. is.

Gender.—Various. For detailed rules see § 263.

Genitive Plural.—(1) Parisyllabic or Non-increasing Nouns, that is, Nouns which have the same number of syllables in Gen. Sing. as in Nom., have -ĭum in Gen. Plur.

(2) Imparisyllabic or Increasing, Nouns which have more syllables in Gen. Sing. than in Nom., have -um in Gen. Plur.

(3) But Nouns whose Nom. is Monosyllabic take -ĭum if the base ends with two consonants.

Note.—Pătĕr father, mātĕr mother, frātĕr brother, are only apparently Parisyllabic, as they have lost an e in the Gen. Sing., and so make Gen. Plur. pătr-um, mātr-um, frātr-um.

Masculine and Feminine Nouns.—Exx. (1) host-ĭs Gen. host-ĭs (m.) enemy; (2) cōnsŭl, Gen. cōnsŭl-ĭs (m.) consul; (3) ar-s, base art-, Gen. art-ĭs (f.) art.

	Sing.	Plur.
N.V.	host-ĭs	host-ēs
A.	host-em	host-ēs
G.	host-ĭs	host-ĭum
D.	host-ī	host-ĭbŭs
Abl.	host-ĕ	host-ĭbŭs

	Sing.	Plur.
N.V.	cōnsŭl	cōnsŭl-ēs
A.	cōnsŭl-em	cōnsŭl-ēs
G.	cōnsŭl-ĭs	cōnsŭl-um
D.	cōnsŭl-ī	cōnsŭl-ĭbŭs
Abl.	cōnsŭl-ĕ	cōnsŭl-ĭbŭs

	Sing.	Plur.
N.V.	ars	art-ēs
A.	art-em	art-ēs
G.	art-ĭs	art-ĭum
D.	art-ī	art-ĭbŭs
Abl.	art-ĕ	art-ĭbŭs

The Loc. Sing., when used, ends in -ī, as Karthāgĭn-ī at Carthage, rūr-ī in the country; but the Abl. is generally used instead.

Some Nouns with Nom. Sing, in -ĭs have -ī in the Abl. Sing. Ex. tussis (f.) cough, Abl. Sing. tuss-ī, also tuss-ĕ See § 272.

vīs (f.) force is declined thus:

	Sing.	Plur.
N.	vīs	vīr-ēs
A.	vim	vīr-ēs
G.	(none)	vīr-ĭum
D.	(none)	vīr-ĭbŭs
Abl.	vī	vīr-ĭbŭs

A few other Nouns in -ĭs sometimes form the Ace. Sing. in -im. See § 271.

§ 22. The following list exhibits the most important forms of the Nom. and Gen, Sing, of Masculine and Feminine Nouns :

	Nom.	Gen.
$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	amnĭs	amn-ĭs	m.	river
	turrĭs	turr-ĭs	f.	tower
	nūbēs	nūb-ĭs	f.	cloud
	cōnsŭl	cōnsŭl-ĭs	m.	consul
	arbŏr	arbŏr-ĭs	f.	tree
	carcĕr	carcĕr-ĭs	m.	gaol
	pătĕr	pătr-ĭs	m.	father
	lăbŏr	lăbōr-ĭs	m.	work
	sanguī̆s	sanguĭn-ĭs	m.	blood
	lĕō	lĕōn-ĭs	m.	lion
$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	ōrdō	ōrdĭn-ĭs	m	rank
	ĭmāgō	ĭmāgĭn-ĭs	f.	likeness
	caespĕs	caespĭt-ĭs	m.	turf
$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	aetās	aetās-ĭs	f.	age
	virtūs	virtūt-ĭs	f.	virtue
	trabs	trăb-ĭs	f.	plank
	iūdex	iūdĭc-ĭs	m.	judge
	pāx	pāc-ĭs	f.	peace
	fax	făc-ĭs	f.	torch
	rādīx	rādīc-ĭs	f.	root
	lēx	lēg-ĭs	f.	law

Most Nouns in -ō form Gen. in -ōnĭs: but those in -dō, -gō have -ĭnĭs. So also hŏmō̆, hŏmĭn-ĭs (m. or f.) human being.

§ 23. Neuter Nouns. (1) Parisyllabic. sĕdīl-ĕ seat, Gen. sĕdīl-ĭs.

	Sing.	Plur.
N.V.A.	sĕdīl-ĕ	sĕdīl-ĭă
G.	sĕdīl-ĭs	sĕdīl-ĭum
D.	sĕdīl-ī	sĕdīl-ĭbŭs
Abl.	sĕdīl-ī	sĕdīl-ĭbŭs

Like sĕdīlĕ are declined Neuter Nouns ending in -ăl, -ăr which were originally Parisyllabic and ended in -ālĕ, -ārĕ, ex.: ănĭmăl, Gen. ănĭmāl-ĭs living thing, animal.

	Sing.	Plur.
N.V.A.	ănĭmăl	ănĭmāl-ĭă
G.	ănĭmāl-ĭs	ănĭmāl-īum
D.	ănĭmāl-ī	ănĭmāl-ĭbŭs
Abl.	ănĭmāl-ī	ănĭmāl-ĭbŭs

(2) Imparisyllabic. gĕnŭs, Gen. gĕnĕr-ĭs race.

	Sing.	Plur.
N.V.A.	gĕnŭs	gĕnĕr-ă
G.	gĕnĕr-ĭs	gĕnĕr-um
D.	gĕnĕr-ī	gĕnĕr-ĭbŭs
Abl.	gĕnĕr-ĕ	gĕnĕr-ĭbŭs

§ 24. The following list exhibits the most important forms of the Nom. and Gen. Sing. of Neuter Nouns.

Nom.	Gen.
sĕdīlĕ	sĕdīl-ĭs	seat
ănĭmăl	ănĭmāl-ĭs	animal
calcăr	calcār-is	spur
nōmĕn	nōmĭn-ĭs	name
fulgŭr	fulgŭr-ĭs	lightning
gĕnŭs	gĕnĕr-ĭs	kind
corpŭs	corpŏr-is	body

Fourth Declension.

§ 25. The Nom. Sing. ends in -ŭs or -ū.

Gender.—Nouns in -ŭs are generally Masculine, with a few Feminine; those in -ū always Neuter.

Exx. portŭs (m.) harbour, base port-; vĕrū (n.) spit, base ver-.

	Sing.	Plur.
N.V.	port-ŭs	port-ūs
A.	port-um	port-ūs
G.	port-ūs	port-ŭum
D.	port-ŭī	port-ĭbŭs or port-ŭbŭs
Abl.	port-ū	port-ĭbus or port-ŭbŭs

	Sing.	Plur.
N.V.A.	vĕr-ū	vĕr-ŭă
G.	vĕr-ūs	vĕr-ŭum
D.	vĕr-ŭī	vēr-ĭbŭs or vĕr-ŭbŭs
Abl.	vĕr-ū	vĕr-ĭbŭs or vĕr-ŭbŭs

The Dat. Sing. sometimes has -ū for ŭī, as port-ū.

Most Nouns have only -ĭbŭs in Dat. and Abl. Plur. For those which have -ŭbŭs, see § 277.

Dŏmŭs (f.) house, base dŏm-, has in some cases inflexions of the Second Declension. The following are the prevalent forms:—

	Sing.	Plur.
N.V.	dŏm-ŭs	dŏm-ūs
A.	dŏm-um	dŏm-ōs
G.	dŏm-ŭī	dŏm-ōrum
D.	dŏm-ŭī	dŏm-ĭbŭs
Abl.	dŏm-ō	dŏm-ĭbŭs

The Loc. Sing. is dŏm-ī at home.

Fifth Declension.

§ 26. The Nom. Sing. ends in -ēs.

Gender.—Feminine, except dĭēs, m. or f.

Ex. dĭēs day, base dĭ-.

	Sing.	Plur.
N.V.	dĭ-ēs	dĭ-ēs
A.	dĭ-em	dĭ-ēs
G.	dĭ-ēī	dĭ-ērum
D.	dĭ-ēī	dĭ-ēbŭs
Abl.	dĭ-ē	dĭ-ēbŭs

Most Nouns of this declension are used only in the Sing. Only dĭēs and rēs (f.) thing have Gen., Dat., and Abl. Plur.

---

ADJECTIVES.

§ 27. Adjectives, like Nouns, have inflexions denoting Case and Number. They have also inflexions denoting Gender.

Adjectives are of two classes. The First Class has in the Masc. the inflexions of Nouns in -ŭs and -ĕr of the Second Declension; in the Fem. those of Nouns of the First Declension; in the Neut. those of Nouns in -um of the Second Declension.

The Second Class has the inflexions of the Third Declension.

§ 28. Adjectives of the First Class.

Exx.	bŏnŭs, bŏnă, bŏnum good, base bŏn-.
	pĭgĕr, pĭgra, pĭgrum slow, base pĭgr-.
	mĭsĕr, mĭsĕra, mĭsĕrum wretched, base mĭsĕr-.

Singular.

	M.	F.	N.
N.	bŏn-ŭs	bŏn-ă	bŏn-um
V.	bŏn-ĕ	bŏn-ă	bŏn-um
A.	bŏn-um	bŏn-am	bŏn-um
G.	bŏn-ī	bŏn-ae	bŏn-ī
D.	bŏn-ō	bŏn-ae	bŏn-ō
Abl.	bŏn-ō	bŏn-ā	bŏn-ō

Plural.

	M.	F.	N.
N.	bŏn-ī	bŏn-ae	bŏn-ă
V.	bŏn-ī	bŏn-ae	bŏn-ă
A.	bŏn-ōs	bŏn-ās	bŏn-ă
G.	bŏn-ōrum	bŏn-ārum	bŏn-ōrum
D. Abl.	bŏn-īs	bŏn-īs	bŏn-īs

Singular.

	M.	F.	N.
N.V	mĭsĕr	mĭsĕr-ă	mĭsĕr-um
A.	mĭsĕr-um	mĭsĕr-am	mĭsĕr-um
	&c.	&c.	&c.

Plural.

	M.	F.	N.
N.	mĭsĕr-ī	mĭsĕr-ae	mĭsĕr-ă
V.	mĭsĕr-ōs	mĭsĕr-ās	mĭsĕr-ōs
	&c.	&c.	&c.

	M.	F.	N.
N.V	pĭgĕr	pĭgr-ă	pĭgr-um
A.	pĭgr-um	pĭgr-am	pĭgr-um
	&c.	&c.	&c.

Plural.

	M.	F.	N.
N.V.	pĭgr-ī	pĭgr-ae	pĭgr-ă
A.	pĭgr-ōs	pĭgr-ās	pĭgr-ă
	&c.	&c.	&c.

The following Adjectives are declined like mĭsĕr:

asper rough	lăcer torn	līber free
tĕner soft		prōsper lucky,

and Compound Adjectives in -fĕr and -gĕr as lānĭgĕr, -ĕră, -ĕrum wool-bearing (fleecy), bĭfĕr, -ĕră, -ĕrum bearing twice.

Dexter, dextĕră or dextră, dextĕrum or dextrum on the right hand, varies.

All other Adjectives of the First Class in -er are declined like pĭgĕr.

§ 29. ūnus, ūna, ūnum one, is thus declined in the Sing:

	M.	F.	N.
N.	ūn-ŭs	ūn-ă	ūn-um
V.	ūn-ĕ	ūn-ă	ūn-um
A.	ūn-um	ūn-am	ūn-um
G.		ūn-īŭs or ūn-ĭŭs
D.		ūn-ī
Abl.	ūn-o	ūn-ā	ūn-ō

In the Plural (required for Nouns with a Plural form but a Singular meaning) it is declined like bŏnŭs.

The following Pronominal Adjectives also have -īŭs (or -ĭŭs, see § 448*) in G. Sing., and -ī in D. Sing. of all Genders.

ūllus any	sōlus only
nūllus no	tōtus whole
alter, altĕra, altĕrum one or other (of two), second.
ŭter, ŭtra, ŭtrum which of two.
neuter, neutra, neutrum neither.

ălĭ-ŭs, ălĭ-a, ălĭ-ŭd other has Gen. Sing. ălīŭs (rare), Dat. Sing. ălĭī.

Adjectives of the Second Class.

§ 30. These Adjectives, with a very few exceptions, do not distinguish the Masc. and Fem. by different terminations.

The general remarks in § 21 on Nouns of the Third Declension apply to Adjectives of the Second Class.

Neut. Sing.—Adjectives in -ĭs (M. F.) take -ĕ in Neut. N.V.A.

Adjectives of the Comparative degree (see below, § 35) in -ŏr (M. F.) take -ŭs in Neut. N.V.A.

Adjectives in -er (M.) take -rĕ in Neut. N.V.A.

In other Adjectives of this class there is no difference between the Masc. and Fem. N.V. and the Neut. N.V.A.

Abl. Sing.—The Abl. Sing, of Adjectives of this class shows an important variation from Nouns of the Third Declension. In Adjectives in -ĭs and -ĕr the termination of the Abl. Sing. is -ī, not -ĕ.

Neut. Plur.—The Neuter Plural N.V.A. of Adjectives of this class ends in -'ĭă. Except Comparative Adjectives, as mĕlĭŏr better, Neut. Pl. mĕlĭōr-ă; also vĕtŭs (M. F. N.) old, base vĕtĕr-, Neut. Pl. vĕtĕr-ă.

Gen. Plur.—Adjectives in -ĭs have -ĭum in the Gen. Pl.

Adjectives in -ŏr have -um.

Other Adjectives have -ĭum when the final syllable of the Base has a long vowel, or ends with two consonants; -um, when it ends with a consonant preceded by a short vowel.

§ 31. Exx. făcĭl-ĭs, făcĭl-ĕ, base făcĭl- easy.

prūdēn-s, G. prūdent-ĭs, base prūdent- prudent.

dŭplex, G. dŭplĭc-ĭs, base dŭplĭc- double.

	Sing.		Plur.
	M. F.	N.	M. F.	N.
N.V.	făcĭl-ĭs	făcĭl-ĕ	făcĭl-ēs	făcĭl-ĭă
A.	făcĭl-em	făcĭl-ĕ	făcĭl-ēs	făcĭl-ĭă
G.	făcĭl-ĭs		făcĭl-ĭum
D.	făcĭl-ī		făcĭl-ĭbŭs
Abl.	făcĭl-ī		făcĭl-ĭbŭs

	Sing.		Plur.
	M. F.	N.	M. F.	N.
N.V.	prūdēns		prūdent-ēs	prūdent-ĭă
A.	prūdent-em	prūdēns	prūdent-ēs	prūdent-ĭă
G.	prūdent-ĭs		prūdent-ĭum
D.	prūdent-ī		prūdent-ĭbŭs
Abl.	prūdent-ī (rarely prūdent-ĕ)		prūdent-ĭbŭs

	Sing.		Plur.
	M. F.	N.	M. F.	N.
N.V.	dŭplex		dŭplĭc-ēs	dŭplĭc-ĭă
A.	dŭplĭc-ĕm	dŭplex	dŭplĭc-ēs	dŭplĭc-ĭă
G.	dŭplĭc-ĭs		dŭplĭc-um
D.	dŭplĭc-ī		dŭplĭc-ĭbŭs
Abl.	dŭplĭc-ī (rarely dŭplĭc-ĕ)		dŭplĭc-ĭbŭs

§ 32. The following list gives examples of the most important forms of Nom., Gen., and Abl. Sing. of Adjectives declined like prūdēns and dŭplex.

Nom.	Gen.	Abl.
audāx	audāc-ĭs	audāc-ī (or -ĕ)	bold
ătrōx	ătrōc-ĭs	ătrōc-ī (or -ĕ)	frightful
fēlīx	fēlīc-ĭs	fēlīc-ī (or -ĕ)	fortunate
ēlĕgāns	ēlĕgant-ĭs	ēlĕgant-ī	refined
tĕrĕs	tĕrĕt-ĭs	tĕrĕt-ī	rounded
dīvĕs	dīvĭt-ĭs	dīvĭt-ĕ	rich
vĭgĭl	vĭgĭl-ĭs	vĭgĭl-ī	wakeful
mĕmŏr	mĕmŏr-ĭs	mĕmŏr-ī	mindful
paupĕr	paupĕr-ĭs	paupĕr-ĕ	poor
ĭnops	ĭnŏp-ĭs	ĭnŏp-ī (or -ĕ)	poor
partĭceps	partĭcĭp-ĭs	partĭcĭp-ĕ	sharing

This list shows the impossibility of giving any rule for -ī or -ĕ in Abl. Sing.

§ 33. Adjectives in -ĕr of the Second Class.—Most of these form N.V. Fem. by adding -ĭs, and N.V.A. Neut. by adding -ĕ to the base. Thus they have three terminations in N.V. Sing. only.

Exx. cĕlĕr, cĕlĕr-ĭs, cĕlĕr-ĕ, base cĕlĕr- swift;
ācĕr, ācr-ĭs, ācr-ĕ, base ācr- keen.

	Sing.		Plur.
	M.	F.	N.	M. F.	N.
N.V.	ācer	ācr-ĭs	ācr-ĕ	ācr-ēs	ācr-ĭă
A.	ācr-em	ācr-em	ācr-ĕ	ācr-ēs	ācr-ĭă
G.	ācr-ĭs	ācr-ĭs	ācr-ĭs	ācr-ĭum
D.	ācr-ī	ācr-ī	ācr-ī	ācr-ĭbŭs
Abl.	ācr-ī	ācr-ī	ācr-ī	ācr-ĭbŭs

§ 34. Comparative Adjectives (§ 35) are declined thus:

Ex. māiŏr greater.

Sing.		Plur.
	M. F.	N.	M. F.	N.
N.V.	māiŏr	māiŭs	māiōr-ēs	māiōr-ă
A.	māiŏr-em	māiŭs	māiŏr-ēs	māiŏr-ă
G.	māiŏr-ĭs		māiŏr-um
D.	māiŏr-ī		māiŏr-ĭbŭs
Abl.	māiŏr-ĕ		māiŏr-ĭbŭs

Comparison of Adjectives.

§ 35. There are three Degrees of Comparison, the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative. The Positive denotes simply that a thing (or person) has a certain quality, as făcĭlĭs easy. The Comparative denotes that it has the quality in a higher degree than some other thing, as făcĭlĭŏr easier. The Superlative denotes either that it has the quality in a higher degree than several other things, or merely that it has it in a high degree, as făcillĭmŭs easiest or very easy.

To give the Comparative and Superlative of an Adjective (or Adverb) is often called to "Compare" it.

§ 36. The Comparative is formed by adding the terminations, M. F. -ĭŏr, N. -iŭs, to the base of the Adjective.

The Superlative is formed:

(1) By adding -ĭssĭmŭs (-ă, -um) to the Base unless the Nom. Masc. ends in -ĕr.

(2) By adding -rĭmŭs (-ă, -um) to the Nom, Masc. if it ends in -ĕr.

§ 37. Exx. of regular Comparison:—

Pos.	Comp.	Superl.
tūt-ŭs safe	tūtĭŏr	tūtissĭmŭs
fortĭs brave	fortĭŏr	fortissĭmŭs
prūdēns prudent	prūdentĭŏr	prūdentissĭmŭs
audāx hold	audācĭŏr	audācissĭmŭs
pĭgĕr slow	pĭgrĭŏr	pĭgerrĭmŭs
cĕlĕr swift	cĕlĕrĭŏr	celerrĭmŭs

§ 38. The following exceptions should be noted:

1. Six Adjectives in -ĭlĭs form the Superl. by adding -lĭmŭs to the Base; as făcĭl-ĭs, Comp. făcĭl-ĭŏr, Superl. făcil-lĭmŭs.

They are—

făcĭlĭs easy	sĭmĭlĭs like	grăcĭlĭs slender
diffĭcĭlĭs difficult	dissĭmĭlĭs unlike	hŭmĭlĭs low

Most Verbal Adjectives in -ĭlĭs have no Superlative.

2. Compound Adjectives in -dĭcŭs, -fĭcŭs, and -vŏlŭs, have -entĭŏr, -entissĭmŭs in the Comp. and Superl.: as mălĕ-vŏlŭs ill-disposed, Comp. mălĕ-vŏlentĭŏr, Superl. mălĕ-vŏlentissĭmŭs.

3. Adjectives in -ĭŭs and -ŭŭs form Comp. and Superl. by prefixing măgĭs more and māxĭmē most to the Positive, as industrĭŭs industrious, Comp. măgĭs industrĭŭs, Superl. māxĭmē industrĭŭs.

§39.Irregular Comparison.

Pos.	Comp.		Superl.
bŏnŭs good	mĕlĭŏr		optĭmŭs
mălŭs bad	pēiŏr		pessĭmŭs
māgnŭs great	māiŏr		māxĭmŭs
parvŭs small	mĭnŏr		mĭnĭmŭs
multŭs (S.) much, (Pl.) many	plūs (§ 40)		plūrĭmŭs
dīvĕs (base dīvĭt-) rich	dīvĭtĭŏr or		dīvĭtissĭmŭs or
	dītĭŏr		dītissĭmŭs
sĕnex old	sĕnĭŏr		[nātū māxĭmŭs]
iŭvĕnĭs young	iūnĭŏr		[nātū mĭnĭmŭs]
extĕrŭs outward	extĕrĭŏr		extrēmūs
īnfĕrŭs lower	īnfĕrĭŏr		īnfĭmŭs or īmŭs
sŭpĕrŭs upper	sŭpĕrĭŏr	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	sŭprēmŭs last
			summŭs highest
postĕrŭs coming after	postĕrĭŏr		postrēmŭs

The following have no Positive—

Comp.	Superl.
intĕrĭŏr inner	intĭmŭs
ūltĕrĭŏr further	ūltĭmŭs
prĭŏr former	prĭmŭs first
prŏpĭŏr nearer	proxĭmŭs
pŏtĭŏr better (of things)	pŏtissĭmus best
dētĕrĭŏr worse	dēterrĭmŭs worst

vĕtŭs, Gen. vĕtĕrĭs old, has Superl. vĕterrĭmŭs.

§ 40. For the declension of Comparative Adjectives see § 34.

Plūs more is thus declined:

Sing.		Plur.
Neuter only.		M. F.	N.
N.V.A.	plūs	plūr-ēs	plūr-ă
G.	plūr-ĭs	plūr-ĭum
D.A.	—	plūr-ĭbŭs

The Sing. is used only as a Neuter Noun.

Adverbs formed from Adjectives.

§ 41. Latin Adverbs are formed from Adjectives as follows:

(1) By adding the termination -ē to the base of Adjectives of the First Class; as, tăcĭt-ŭs silent, tăcĭt-ē silently; mĭsĕr, base mĭsĕr-, wretched, mĭsĕr-ē wretchedly; pĭgĕr, base pĭgr-, slow, pĭgr-ē slowly.

But măl-ŭs bad, mal-ĕ badly; bŏn-ŭs good, bĕnĕ well.

A few Adjectives in -ŭs form their Adverbs in -ō instead of -ē: thus, tūt-ŭs safe, tūt-ō safely; fals-ŭs false, fals-ō falsely.

(2) By adding the termination -ĭtĕr or -tĕr to the base of Adjectives of the Second Class.

-ĭtĕr is used if the Adj. ends in -ĭs, -ĕr, or -x (base ending in -c).

As, fort-ĭs brave, fort-ĭtĕr bravely ; ācĕr, base ācr-, keen, ācr-ĭtĕr keenly; fĕrōx wild, base fĕrōc-, fĕrōc-ĭtĕr wildly.

But audāx bold, drops the i and makes audāc-tĕr boldly.

-tĕr is used if the Adj. ends in -ns (base ending in -nt), one of the t's being dropped; as dĕcēns, base dĕcent-, becoming, dĕcen-tĕr becomingly.

The second formation is sometimes used in the case of Adjectives of the First Class; as, larg-ŭs lavish, larg-ĭtĕr or larg-ē lavishly.

(3) The Neut. Acc. Sing. is used to form the Adverbs of some Positive Adjectives; so făcĭlĭs easy, făcĭlĕ easily; dulcĭs sweet, dulcĕ sweetly (also dulcĭtĕr). Compare § 307(1).

§ 42. Degrees of Comparison.—The Comparative Adverb is the Neut. Acc. Sing. of the Comparative Adjective.

The Superlative Adverb is usually formed by adding -ē to the base of the Superlative Adjective. Thus—

Pos.	Comp.	Superl.
mĭsĕr-ē wretchedly	mĭsĕr-ĭŭs	mĭserrĭm-ē
fort-ĭtĕr bravely	fort-ĭŭs	fortissĭm-ē
făcĭl-ē easily	făcĭl-ĭŭs	făcillĭm-ē
Note
bĕnĕ well	mĕlĭŭs better	optĭm-ē best
mălĕ badly	pēiŭs worse	pessĭm-ē worst
mŭltum much	plūs more	plūrĭmum most
	măgĭs more	māxĭmē most
[părum]	mĭnŭs less	mĭnĭmē least

Numeral Adjectives

§43. These are of three kinds:

1. Cardinal; as, ūnus one, dŭŏ two.
2. Ordinal; as, prīmus first, sĕcundus second.
3. Distributive; as, singulī one each, bīnī two each.

For the complete list see the Table of Numerals §44.

§ 44. Table of Numerals.

	Roman Symbol.	Cardinal.	Ordinal	Distributive.	Adverbs.
1	I	ūnus	prīmus	singŭlī	sĕmĕl
2	II	dŭo	sĕcundus or altĕr	bīnī	bĭs
3	III	trēs	tertĭmus	ternī	ter
4	IIII (IV)	quattŭŏr	quārtus	quārtus	quătĕr
5	V	quīnquĕ	quīntus	quīnī	quīnquiē(n)s
6	VI	sex	sextus	sēnī	sexiē(n)s
7	VII	septem	septĭmus	septēnī	septiē(n)s
8	VIII	octō	octăvus	octōnī	octiē(n)s
9	VIIII (IX)	nŏvem	nōnus	nŏvēnī	nŏviē(n)s
10	X	dĕcem	dĕcĭmus	dēnī	dĕciē(n)s
11	XI	ūndĕcĕcim	ūndĕcĭmus	ūndēnī	ūndĕciē(n)s
12	XI	dŭŏdĕcim	dŭŏdĕcĭmus	dŭŏdēnī	dŭŏdĕciē(n)s
13	XIII	trĕdĕcim	tertĭŭs dĕcĭmus	ternī dēnī	terdĕciē(n)s
14	XIV	quattŭordĕcim	quārtŭs dĕcĭmus	quăternī dēnī	quăterdĕciē(n)s
15	XV	quīndĕcim	quīntŭs dĕcĭmus	quīnī dēnī	quīndĕciē(n)s
16	XVI	sēdĕcim	sextŭs dĕcĭmus	sēnī dēnī	sēdĕciē(n)s
17	XVII	septendĕcim	dĕcĭmus	septēnī dēnī	septiēnsdĕciē(n)s
18	XVIII	dŭŏdēvīgintī	dŭŏdēvīcē(n)sĭmus	dŭŏdēvīcēni	dŭŏdēvīciē(n)s
19	XVIIII (XIX)	ūndēvīgintī	ūndēvīcē(n)sĭmus	ūndēvīcēnī	ūndēvīcē(n)s
20	XX	vīgintī	vīcē(n)sĭmus	vīcēnī	vīcē(n)s
21	XXI	ūnus ĕt vīgintī	ūnus ĕt vīcē(n)sĭmus	vīcēni singŭlī	sĕmĕl ĕt vīcē(n)s
30	XXX	trīgintā	trīcē(n)sĭmus	trīcēni	trīcē(n)s
40	XXXX (XL)	quădrāgintā	quădrāgē(n)sĭmus	quădrāgēnī	quădrāgiē(n)s
50	L	quinquāgintā	quinquāgē(n)sĭmus	quinquāgēnī	quinquāgiē(n)s
60	LX	sexāgintā	sexāgē(n)sĭmus	sexāgēnī	sexāgiē(n)s
70	LXX	septŭgintā	septŭāgē(n)sĭmus	septŭāgēnī	septŭgiē(n)s
80	LXXX	octōgintā	octōgē(n)sĭmus	octōgēnī	octōgiē(n)s
90	LXXXX (XC)	nōnāgintā	nōnāgē(n)sĭmus	nōnāgēnī	nōnāgiē(n)s
100	C	centum	centē(n)sĭmus	centēnī	centē(n)s
200	CC	dŭcentī (ae, a)	dŭcentē(n)sĭmus	dŭcēnī	dŭcentiē(n)s
300	CCC	triĕcentī	triĕcentē(n)sĭmus	triĕcēnī	triĕcentiē(n)s
400	CCCC	quadrigentī	quădringentē(n)sĭmus	quădringēnī	quădringentiē(n)s
500	IↃ(D)	quīngentī	quīngentē(n)sĭmus	quīngēnī	quădrīngentiē(n)s
600	IↃC	sēscentī	sēscentē(n)sĭmus	sēscenēnī	sēscentiē(n)s
700	IↃCC	septingentī	septingentī(n)sĭmus	septigngēnī	septigntiē(n)s
800	IↃCCC	octingentī	octingentē(n)sĭmus	octingēnī	octingentiē(n)s
900	IↃCCCC	nōngentī	nōngentē(n)sĭmus	nōngēnī	nōngentiē(n)s
1,000	CIↃ (or M)	mīllĕ	mīllĕ(n)sĭmus	singŭla mīlĭă	mīllĕ(n)s
2,000	CIↃCIↃ	dŭŏ mīllă	bĭs mīllĕ(n)sĭmus	bīnă mīlĭă	bĭs mīllĕ(n)s
100,000	CCCIↃↃↃ	centum mīllă	centĭēns mīllē(n)sĭmus	centēna mīlĭă	centiē mīllē(n)s
1,000,000	CCCCIↃↃↃ	dĕcĭē(n)s centum mīllă	dĕcĭē(n)s cēntĭē(n)s millē(n)sĭmus	dĕcĭē(n)s cēntĭēna mīlĭa	dĕciē(n)s centiēns mīlliē(n)s

§ 45. Declension of the Numerals.—For the declension of ūnus see § 29.

Dŭŏ two, and trēs three are thus declined:—

	M.	F.	N.
N.V.	dŭŏ	dŭae	dŭŏ
A.	dŭŏ or dŭōs	dŭās	dŭŏ
G.	dŭōrum	dŭārum	dŭōrum
D. Abl.	dŭōbŭs	dŭābŭs	dŭōbŭs

Ambō both is declined like duŏ, except that the o is long. Duŏ (not ambō) has sometimes G. in -um, duum, of all genders. Comp. § 268.

	M. F.	N.
N.V. A.	trēs	trĭă
G.	trĭum
D. Abl.	trĭbŭs

The Cardinals from quattŭŏr to centum are indeclinable.

Dŭcenti, etc., are declined like the Pl. of Adjectives in -us.

Mīllĕ is indeclinable in the Sing.: in the Plur. (as dŭŏ mīlĭă two thousand) it is declined as a Neut. Noun; thus:

N.V. A.	mīlĭă[4]
G.	mīlĭum
D. Abl.	mīlĭbŭs

1. The student is recommended to call the Latin letters by their Latin names, which will be found in § 257.
2. Except after q, as quis.
3. The a in state and the o in note are only approximations to the sound of Lat. ē and Lat. ō respectively.
4. Not millia.

Ordinals are declined like Adjectives in -ŭs, -ă, -um; Distributives like the Plur. of such Adjectives.

---

PRONOUNS.

§ 46. Pronouns are of six kinds:

1. Personal Pronouns, used instead of Nouns, to show the person spoken of; as tū thou, nōs we.
2. Possessive Pronouns, used as Adjectives, to show the person who possesses the thing named; as tŭŭs thy, thine, nostĕr our, ours.
3. Demonstrative Pronouns, which indicate persons or things without naming or describing them; as, illĕ that man, ĕădem hastă the same spear.
4. Relative Pronouns; as, quī who, which.
5. Interrogative Pronouns; as, quĭs? who?
6. Indefinite Pronouns; as, ălĭqŭis someone, anyone.

Pronouns are used either as Nouns, standing alone, or as Adjectives, agreeing with a Noun expressed or implied. But Personal Pronouns are used only as Substantives; Possessive Pronouns only as Adjectives.

§ 47. I. The Personal Pronouns are: First Person, ĕgŏ I, Plur. nōs we; Second Person, tū thou, you, Plur. vōs you, ye.

	Sing.	Plur.
N.	ĕgŏ	nōs
V.	none	none
A.	mē	nōs
G.	mĕī	nostrī and nostrum
D.	mĭhĭ or mĭhī	nōbīs
Abl.	mē	nōbīs

	Sing.	Plur.
N.V.	tū	vōs
A.	tē	vōs
G.	tŭī	vestrī and vestrum
D.	tĭbĭ or tĭbī	vōbīs
Abl.	tē	vōbīs

The Oblique cases are also used as Reflexives, answering to the English myself, thyself, or yourself, ourselves, yourselves, especially with ipsĕ § 339.

Third Person.—Latin has no Personal Pronoun corresponding to English he, she, they. It is either omitted altogether, or one of the Demonstrative Pronouns, e.g. ĭs, is used instead. Thus, I saw him is vīdī ĕum, literally, I saw that-man. The Reflexive Pronoun of the Third person is sē (Acc.) himself, herself, itself, themselves. The Sing. and Plur. are alike, and there is no distinction of Gender.

	Sing. or Plur.
A.	sē (or sēsē)
G.	sŭī
D.	sĭbĭ or sĭbī
Abl.	sē (or sēsē)

§ 48. Possessive Pronouns.

mĕŭs, mĕă, mĕum my, mine; my own.

nostĕr, nostră, nostrum our, ours; our own.

tŭŭs, tŭă, tŭum thy, thine; thine own; your, yours; your own.

vestĕr, vestră, vestrum your, yours; your own.

sŭŭs, sŭă, sŭum his, her, hers, its, their, theirs; his own, etc.

These Pronouns are declined like Adjectives in -ŭs or -ĕr. But the Voc. Masc. of mĕŭs is mī or, rarely, mĕŭs; tŭŭs and sŭŭs have no Voc.

sŭŭs, like sē, is Reflexive, and only used of the Subject of the sentence; see also § 338. In other cases their is translated by the Gen. of a Demonstrative.

§ 49. Demonstrative Pronouns.

M.	F.	N.
hīc or hĭc	haec	hōc	this
ĭs	ĕă	ĭd	that
illĕ	illā	illŭd	that, 'yonder [you)
istĕ	istă	istŭd	that (of yours or near
ipsĕ	ipsă	ipsum	self
īdem	ĕădem	ĭdem	the same

Note.—Where only one form is given for a case, it is the same for all genders.

	Sing.			Plur.
	M.	F.	N.	M.	F.	N.
N.	hīc or hĭc	haec	hōc	hī	hae	haec
A.	hunc	hanc	hōc	hōs	hās	haec
G.		hūiŭs		hōrum	hārum	hōrum
D.		huic[1]			hīs
Abl.	hōc	hāc	hōc		hīs
ui in huic and cui (§ 49) is a diphthong.
	Sing.			Plur.
N.	ĭs	ĕă	ĭd	ĕī or ĭī	ĕae	ĕă
A.	ĕum	ĕam	ĭd	ĕōs	ĕās	ĕă
G.		ēiŭs		ĕōrum	ĕārum	ĕōrum
D.		ĕī			ĕīs or ĭīs
Abl.	ĕō	ĕā	ĕō		ĕīs or ĭīs
	Sing.			Plur.
N.	ille	illă	illŭd	illī	illae	illă
A.	illum	illam	illŭd	illōs	illās	illă
G.	illīŭs or illĭus			illōrum	illārum	illōrum
D.		illī			illīs
Abl.	illō	illā	illō		illīs

istĕ is declined like illĕ.
ipsĕ is declined like illĕ, except Neut. Sing. N.A. ips-um.

	Sing.
	M.	F.	N.
N.	īdem	ĕădem	ĭdem
A.	ĕundem	ĕandem	ĭdem
G.		ēiusdem
D.		ĕīdem
Abl.	ĕōdem	ĕādem	ĕōdem
	Plur.
N.	īdem[1]	ĕaedem	ĕădem
A.	ĕōsdem	ĕāsdem	ĕădem
G.	ĕōrundem	ĕārundem	ĕōrundem
D. Abl.		īsdem[2]

1. Sometimes ĕīdem.
2. Sometimes ĕīsdem.

§ 50. Relative Pronoun: quī, quae, quŏd who, which.

	Sing.
	M.	F.	N.
N.	quī	quae	quŏd
A.	quem	quam	quŏd
G.		cūiŭs
D.		cui
Abl.	quō	quā	quō[1]
	Plur.
N.	quī	quae	quae
A.	quōs	quās	quae
G.	quōrum	quārum	quōrum
D. Abl.		quĭbŭs or quīs[2]

1. quī is sometimes found as Abl. of all genders.
2. Sometimes written queis.

ŭtĕr, ŭtră, ŭtrum the one of the two which. See § 29.

§51. Interrogative Pronoun: quĭs or quī who? which?

Thus declined:

		M.	F.	N.
Sing.	N.	quĭs or quī	quae	quĭd or quŏd
	A.	quem	quam	quĭd or quŏd

The rest like the Relative Pronoun,

ŭtĕr, ŭtra, ŭtrum which-of-the-two? See § 29.

§ 52. Indefinite Pronouns: quĭs or quī, any, a.

Thus declined:

		M.	F.	N.
Sing.	N.	quĭs or quī	quă or quae	quĭd or quŏd

The rest like the Interrogative Pronoun; except Neut. Plur. N.A. quă, sometimes quae.

ălĭquĭs or ălĭquī, some, any.

		M.	F.	N.
Sing.	N.	ălĭquĭs or ălĭquī	ălĭquă	ălĭquĭd or ălĭquŏd

The rest like the Interrogative Pronoun except Neut. Plur. N.A. ălĭquă.

Other Indefinite Pronouns are compounds of quī or quĭs; see § 285.

§ 53. The forms quĭs (Masc. Sing.), quĭd (Neut.) (Interrogative and Indefinite), are generally used Substantivally; and quī, quŏd Adjectivally. So also ălĭquĭs, ălĭquĭd, and ălĭquī, ălĭquŏd.

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VERBS.

§ 54. Inflexions of Verbs.—Verbs have inflexions to denote Person, Number, Tense, Mood, and Voice.

§ 55. Person.—The inflexions of Person are three, corresponding to the three Personal Pronouns; as, (1) ăm ō I-love, (2) ăm-ās thou-lovest, (3) ăm-ăt he-loves.

§ 56. Number.—The inflexions of a Verb vary according as the subject is Singular or Plural; as, Sing. hŏmō̆ am-ăt the-man loves, Plur. hŏmĭnēs ăm-ant the-men love.

§ 57. Tense.—Tenses show the time at which the action of the Verb takes place.

Latin has six Tenses: Present, Future, Future-Perfect, Perfect, Imperfect, Pluperfect.

The Present (Pres.) denotes that the action is occurring at the present time, that is now; as, vĕnĭō I-come or I-am-coming.

The Future (Fut.) that it will occur at some time after the present, that is in the future; as, vĕnĭam I-will-come.

The Future-Perfect (Fut. Perf.) that it will have occurred by some future time; as, vēnĕrō I-shall-have-come.

The Perfect (Perf) has two meanings:

(1) That the action has occurred by the present time; as, vēnī I-have-come. (Perfect Proper.)

(2) That it did occur at some past time; as, vēnī I-came. (Perfect Aorist.)

The Imperfect (Imperf.) denotes that the action was occurring at some time in the past; as, vĕnĭēbam I-was-coming.

The Pluperfect (Plup.) that it had occurred by some time in the past; as, vēnĕram I had come.

§ 58. Mood.—There are three Moods of Verbs: the Indicative (Ind.), the Subjunctive (Subj.), and the Imperative (Imp.).

The Indicative asserts; as, vĕnīs thou-art-coming.

The Imperative commands; as, vĕnī come!

The Subjunctive has many usages, which will be explained in the Syntax.

A Verb in any of these moods is called Finite.

§ 59. Voice.—There are two Voices of Verbs: Active and Passive.

Of Active Verbs the person who does the action is the subject; as, ămō I-love.

Of Passive Verbs the person to whom the action is done is the subject; as, ămŏr I-am-loved.

Active Verbs are either Transitive or Intransitive. Those which express an action directly affecting some object are Transitive; and these only have complete inflexions in the Passive.

Verbs which express a state or condition are Intransitive; as, stō I-stand. Such Verbs can only be put into the Passive impersonally, as, stātŭr ā mē it-is-stood by me, i.e., a stand is made by me.

Deponent Verbs are those which have the inflexions of the Passive Voice, with an Active meaning; as hortŏr I-advise.

§ 60. Verbals.—Among the parts of the Verb are included certain Verbals, of which some are Nouns and some Adjectives.

The Verbal Nouns are:

The Infinitive (Inf.) (indeclinable). There is a Pres. Act., a Perf. Act., and a Pres. Pass. Infinitive.

Gerund: a Neut. Noun in -dum of the Second Declension.

Supine: two forms, in -um and -ū, the Acc. and Abl. of a Noun of the Fourth Declension.

The Verbal Adjectives are:

The Present Participle (Active): declined as an Adj. of the Second Class.

The Future Participle (Active): declined as an Adj. of the First Class.

The Perfect Participle (Passive): declined as an Adj. of the First Class.

The Gerundive: declined as an Adj. of the First Class.

For the meanings and usages of Verbals, see §§192 sqq.

§61. Compound or Periphrastic Tenses.—As the inflexions of a Latin Verb do not furnish all the forms required by use, the deficiency is supplied by using Participles with the Verb essĕ to be.

I. The Perfect Participle is used to form the Completed Tenses (§ 174*) of the Passive.

Hence it is used with—

sum	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \\\ \\\ \\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$		$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \\\ \\\ \\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	Ind.	Perf.
ĕram					Pluperf.
ĕrō		to form the Passive			Fut. Perf.
sim				Subj.	Perf.
essem					Pluperf.
essĕ				Inf.	Perf.

Deponent Verbs (§ 75) form their Completed tenses in the same way.

In place of sum, etc., these tenses are sometimes formed by fŭī, fŭĕram, fŭĕrō; fŭĕrim, fŭissem, fŭissĕ. See § 73.

2. The Future Participle can be used with any part of essĕ to express futurity or intention. It is often used to supply the want of a Fut. Perf. Subj.

In the Conjugations these forms will be given as used when the Subject is Masculine. But the Participle so used is inflected according to the Gender of the subject.

For the Fut. Inf. Act. and Pass., see §§ 201, 202.

§ 62. Conjugation of the Irregular Verb essĕ to be.

		Ind.	Subj.
Pres. S.	1	sum	sim
	2	ĕs	sīs
	3	est	sĭt
Pl.	1	sŭmŭs	sīmŭs
	2	estĭs	sītĭs
	3	sunt	sint
Imperf. S.	1	ĕram	essem or fŏrem
	2	ĕrās	essēs or fŏrēs
	3	ĕrăt	essĕt or fŏrĕt
Pl.	1	ĕrāmŭs	essēmŭs or fŏrēmŭs
	2	ĕrātĭs	essētĭs or fŏrētĭs
	3	ĕrant	essent or fŏrent
Fut. S.	1	ĕrō
	2	ĕrĭs
	3	ĕrĭt
Pl.	1	ĕrĭmŭs
	2	ĕrĭtĭs
	3	ĕrunt
Perf. S.	1	fŭī	fŭĕrim
	2	fŭistī	fŭĕrīs or fŭĕrĭs
	3	fŭĭt	fŭĕrĭt
	Pl.	fŭĭmŭs	fŭĕrīmŭs or fŭĕrĭmŭs
	2	fŭistis	fŭĕrītĭs or fŭĕrĭtĭs
	3	fŭērunt r fŭērĕ	fŭĕrint

		Ind.	Subj.
Plup. S.	1	fŭĕram	fŭissem
	2	fŭĕrās	fŭissēs
	3	fŭĕrăt	fŭissĕt
Pl.	1	fŭĕrāmŭs	fŭissēmŭs
	2	fŭĕrātĭs	fŭissētĭs
	3	fŭĕrant	fŭissent
Fut. Perf. S.	1	fŭĕrō
	2	fŭĕrĭs or fŭĕrīs
	3	fŭĕrĭt
Pl.	1	fŭĕrĭmŭs or fŭĕrīmŭs
	2	fŭĕrĭtĭs or fŭĕrītĭs
	3	fŭĕrint

Imperative.

	Sing.	Plur
2	ĕs; estō[1]	estē; estōtĕ[1]
3	estō	suntō

Verbals.

Inf. Pres.	essĕ	Inf. Fut.	fŏrĕ
Inf. Pref.	fŭissĕ	Fut. Part.	fŭtŭrus, -a, -um.

The other Verbals are wanting. But a Pres. Part. -sēns is used in two Compounds; see § 82.

1. 1 On the difference between these forms see § 186*.

Conjugation of Regular Verbs.

§ 63. There are four Regular Conjugations. They may be distinguished by the termination of the Pres. Infin. Act.

	The Pres. Infin.	Act. of the	First	Conjugation	ends in	-ārĕ
	„	„	Second	„	„	ērĕ
	„	„	Third	„	„	ĕrĕ
	„	„	Fourth	„	„	īrĕ
Exx.	1.	ămārĕ to love		3.	rĕgĕrĕ to rule
	2.	mŏnērĕ to advise		4.	audīrĕ to hear

§ 64. Contracted Forms.—Many forms of the First and Fourth Conjugations, containing the consonant v, are sometimes contracted by the omission of the syllable vi or ve. These contractions will be indicated by inclosing the omitted syllable in ( ). Thus ăm-ā(vē)runt means that two forms, ămāvērunt and ămārunt are used.

§ 65. First Conjugation.

Active Voice.

		Ind.	Subj.
Pres. S.	1	ăm-ō	ăm-em
	2	ăm-ās	ăm-ēs
	3	ăm-ăt	ăm-ĕt
Pl.	1	ăm-āmŭs	ăm-ēmŭs
	2	ăm-ātĭs	ăm-ētĭs
	3	ăm-ant	ăm-ent
Imper. S.	1	ăm-ābam	ăm-ārem
	2	ăm-ābās	ăm-ārēs
	3	ăm-ābăt	ăm-ārĕt
Pl.	1.	ăm-ābāmŭs	ăm-ārēmŭs
	2.	ăm-ābātĭs	ăm-ārētĭs
	3.	ăm-ābant	ăm-ārent
Fut. S.	1	ăm-ābō
	2	ăm-ābĭs
	3	ăm-ābĭt
Pl.	1	ăm-ābĭmŭs
	2	ăm-ābĭtĭs
	3	ăm-ābunt
Perf. S.	1	ăm-āvī	ăm-ā(vĕ)rim
	2	ăm-ā(vi)stī	ăm-ā(vĕ)rīs or ăm-ā(vĕ)rĭs
	3	ăm-āvĭt	ăm-ā(vĕ)rĭt
Pl.	1	ăm-āvĭmŭs	ăm-ā(vĕ)rīmŭs or ăm-ā(vĕ)rĭmŭs
	2	ăm-āvistis	ăm-ā(vĕ)rītĭs or ăm-ā(vĕ)rĭtĭs
	3	ăm-ā(vē)runt or ăm-ā(vē)rĕ	ăm-ā(vĕ)rint
Plup. S.	1	ăm-ā(vĕ)ram	ăm-ā(vi)ssem
	2	ăm-ā(vĕ)rās	ăm-ā(vi)ssēs
	3	ăm-ā(vĕ)răt	ăm-ā(vi)ssĕt
Pl.	1	ăm-ā(vĕ)rāmŭs	ăm-ā(vi)ssēmŭs
	2	ăm-ā(vĕ)rātĭs	ăm-ā(vi)ssētĭs
	3	ăm-ā(vĕ)rant	ăm-ā(vi)ssent
Fut. Perf. S.	1	ăm-ā(vĕ)rō
	2	ăm-ā(vĕ)rĭs or ăm-ā(vĕ)rīs
	3	ăm-ā(vĕ)rĭt
Pl.	1	ăm-ā(vĕ)rĭmŭs or ăm-ā(vĕ)rīmŭs
	2	ăm-ā(vĕ)rĭtĭs or ăm-ā(vĕ)rītĭs
	3	ăm-ā(vĕ)rint

Imperative.

	Sing.	Plur.
2	ăm-ā; ăm-ātō	ăm-ātĕ; ăm-ātōtĕ
3	ăm-ātō	ăm-antō

Verbals.

Infin. Pres.	ăm-ārĕ	Perf.	ăm-ā(vi)ssĕ
Gerund N. Acc.	ăm-andum	Supine Acc.	ăm-ātum
G.	ăm-andĭ	Abl.	ăm-ātū
D. Abl.	ăm-andō
Part. Pres. N.	ăm-āns	Fut.	ăm-ātūrŭs, -ă,
G.	ăm-antĭs,		-um, &c.
	&c.

§ 66. Second Conjugation.

Active Voice.

		Ind.	Subj.
Pres. S.	1	mŏn-ĕō	mŏn-ĕam
	2	mŏn-ēs	mŏn-ĕās
	3	mŏn-ĕt	mŏn-ĕăt
Pl.	1	mŏn-ēmŭs	mŏn-ĕāmŭs
	2	mŏn-ētĭs	mŏn-ēātĭs
	3	mŏn-ent	mŏn-ĕant
Imperf. S.	1	mŏn-ēbam	mŏn-ērem
	2	mŏn-ēbās	mŏn-ērēs
	3	mŏn-ēbăt	mŏn-ērĕt
Pl.	1	mŏn-ēbāmŭs	mŏn-ērēmŭs
	2	mŏn-ēbātĭs	mŏn-ērētĭs
	3	mŏn-ēbant	mŏn-ērent
Fut. S.	1	mŏn-ēbō
	2	mŏn-ēbĭs
	3	mŏn-ēbĭt
Pl.	1	mŏn-ēbĭmŭs
	2	mŏn-ēbĭtĭs
	3	mŏn-ēbunt
Perf. S.	1	mŏn-ŭī	mŏn-ŭĕrim
	2	mŏn-ŭistī	mŏn-ŭĕrīs or mŏn-ŭĕrĭs
	3	mŏn-ŭĭt	mŏn-ŭĕrĭt
Pl.	1	mŏn-ŭĭmŭs	mŏn-ŭĕrīmŭs or mŏn-ŭĕrĭmŭs
	2	mŏn-ŭistĭs	mŏn-ŭĕrītĭs or mŏn-ŭĕrĭtĭs
	3	mŏn-ŭērunt or mŏn-ŭērĕ	mŏn-ŭĕrint
Plup. S.	1	mŏn-ŭĕram	mŏn-ŭissem
	2	mŏn-ŭĕrās	mŏn-ŭissēs
	3	mŏn-ŭĕrăt	mŏn-ŭisset
Pl.	1	mŏn-ŭĕrāmŭs	mŏn-ŭissēmŭs
	2	mŏn-ŭĕrātĭs	mŏn-ŭissētĭs
	3	mŏn-ŭĕrant	mŏn-ŭissent
Fut. Perf. S.	1	mŏn-ŭĕro
	2	mŏn-ŭĕrĭs or mŏn-ŭĕrīs
	3	mŏn-ŭĕrĭt
Pl.	1	mŏn-ŭĕrĭmŭsor mŏn-ŭĕrīmŭs
	2	mŏn-ŭĕrĭtĭs or mŏn-'ŭĕrītĭs
	3	mŏn-ŭĕrint

Imperative.

	Sing.	Plur.
2	mŏn-ē; mŏn-ētō	mŏn-ētĕ; mŏn-ētōtĕ
3	mŏn-ētō	mŏn-entō

Verbals.

Infin. Pres.	mŏn-ērĕ	Perf.	mŏn-ŭissĕ
Gerund. N. Acc.	mŏn-endum	Supine Acc.	mŏn-ĭtum
G.	mŏn-endī	Abl.	mŏn-ĭtū
D. Abl.	mŏn-endō
Participle Pres. N.	mŏn-ēns	Fut.	mŏn-ĭtūrŭs, -ă, -um,
G.	mŏn-entĭs,		&c.
	&c.

§ 67.Third Conjugation.

Active Voice.

		Ind.	Subj.
Pres. S.	1	rĕg-ō	rĕg-am
	2	rĕg-ĭs	rĕg-ās
	3	rĕg-ĭt	rĕg-āt
Pl.	1	rĕg-ĭmus	rĕg-āmŭs
	2	rĕg-ĭtĭs	rĕg-ātĭs
	3	rĕg-unt	rĕg-ant
Imperf. S.	1	rĕg-ēbam	rĕg-ĕrem
	2	rĕg-ēbās	rĕg-ĕrēs
	3	rĕg-ēbăt	rĕg-ĕrĕt
Pl.	1	rĕg-ēbāmŭs	rĕg-ĕrēmŭs
	2	rĕg-ēbātĭs	rĕg-ĕrētĭs
	3	rĕg-ēbant	rĕg-ĕrent
Fut. S.	1	rĕg-am
	2	rĕg-ēs
	3	rĕg-ĕt
Pl.	1	rĕg-ēmŭs
	2	rĕg-ētĭs
	3	rĕg-ent
	2	rēx-istī	rex-ĕrīs or rēx-ĕrĭs
	2	rēx-ĭt	rēx-ĕrĭt
Pl.	1	rēx-ĭmŭs	rēx-ĕrīmŭs or rēx-ĕrĭmŭs
	2	rēx-istĭs	rēx-ĕrītĭs or rēx-ĕrĭtĭs
	3	rēx-ērunt or rēx-ērĕ	rēx-ĕrint
Plup. S.	1	rēx-ĕram	rēx-issem
	2	rēx-ĕrās	rēx-issēs
	3	rēx-ĕrăt	rēx-issĕt
Pl.	1	rēx-ĕrāmŭs	rēx-issēmŭs
	2	rēx-ĕrātĭs	rēx-issētĭs
	3	rēx-ĕrant	rēx-issent
Fut. Perf. S.	1	rēx-ĕrō
	2	rēx-ĕrĭs or rēx-ĕrīs
	3	rēx-ĕrĭt
Pl.	1	rēx-ĕrĭmŭs or rēx-ĕrīmŭs
	2	rēx-ĕrĭtĭs or rēx-ĕrītĭs
	3	rēx-ĕrint

Imperative

	Sing.	Plur.
2	rĕg-ĕ; rĕg-ĭtō	rĕg-ĭtĕ; rĕg-ĭtōtĕ
3	rĕg-ĭtō	rĕg-untō

Verbals.

Infin. Pres.	rĕg-ĕrĕ	Perf.	rēx-issĕ
Gerund. N. Acc.	rĕg-endum	Supine Acc.	rēc-tum
G.	rĕg-endī	Abl.	rēc-tū
D. Abl.	rĕg-endō
Par. Pres. N.	rĕg-ēns	Fut.	rēc-tūrŭs,-ă,-um
G.	rĕg-entĭs, &c.		&c.

§ 68.Fourth Conjugation.

Active Voice.

		Ind.	Subj.
Pres. S.	1	aud-ĭō	aud-ĭam
	2	aud-īs	aud-ĭās
	3	aud-ĭt	aud-ĭăt
Pl.	1	aud-īmŭs	aud-ĭāmŭs
	2	aud-ītĭs	aud-ĭātĭs
	3	aud-ĭunt	aud-ĭant
Imprerf. S.	1	aud-ĭēbam	aud-īrem
	2	aud-ĭēbās	aud-īrēs
	3	aud-ĭēbăt	aud-īrĕt
Pl.	1	aud-ĭēbāmŭs	aud-īrēmŭs
	2	aud-ĭēbātĭs	aud-īrētĭs
	3	aud-ĭēbant	aud-īrent
Fut. S.	1	aud-ĭam
	2	aud-ĭēs
	3	aud-ĭĕt
Pl.	1	aud-ĭēmŭs
	2	aud-ĭētĭs
	3	aud-ĭent
Perf. S.	1	aud-īvī	aud-īvĕrim
	2	aud-ī(vi)stī	aud-īvĕrīs or aud-ivĕrĭs
	3	aud-īvĭt	aud-īvĕrĭt
Pl.	1	aud-īvĭmŭs	aud-īvĕrīmŭs or aud-īvĕrĭmŭs
	2	aud-ī(vi)stĭs	aud-īvĕrītĭs or aud-īvĕrĭtĭs
	3	aud-īvērunt or aud-īvērĕ	aud-īvĕrint
Plup. S.	1	aud-īvĕram	aud-īvissem
	2	aud-īvĕrās	aud-īvissēs
	3	aud-īvĕrăt	aud-īvissĕt
	2	aud-īvĕrātĭs	aud-īvissētĭs
	3	aud-īvĕrant	aud-īvissent
Fut. Perf. S.	1	aud-īvĕrō
	2	aud-īvĕrĭs or aud-īvĕrīs
	3	aud-īvĕrĭt
Pl.	1	aud-īvĕrĭmŭs or aud-īvĕrīmŭs
	2.	aud-īvĕrĭtĭs or aud-īvĕrītĭs
	3	aud-īvĕrint

Imperative.

	Sing.	Plur.
2	aud-ī; and-ītō	aud-ītĕ; aud-ītōtĕ
3	aud-īto	aud-ĭuntō

Verbals.

Infin. Pres.	aud-īrĕ	Perf.	aud-ī(vi)ssĕ
Gerund N. Acc.	aud-ĭendum	Supine Acc.	aud-ītum
G.	aud-ĭendī	Abl.	aud-ītū
D. Abl.	aud-ĭendō
Part. Pres. N.	aud-ĭens	Fut.	aud-īurŭs, -ă,
G.	aud-ĭentĭs, &c.		-um, &c.

Omission of v. In the forms containing v, where no contraction is marked, the v is often omitted, the preceding ī being shortened. Thus:—

	Sing.	Plur.
Perf. Ind.	†aud-ĭī	†aud-ĭĭmŭs
	aud-īstī	aud-īstĭs
	†aud-ĭĭt	aud-ĭērunt or aud-ĭērĕ
But the forms marked † are rare and poetical.
Perf. Subj.	aud-ĭĕrim, &c.
Plup. Ind.	aud-ĭĕram, &c.
Fut. Perf. Ind.	aud-ĭĕrō, &c.

§69.First Conjugation.

Passive Voice.

		Ind.	Subj.
Pres. S.	1.	ăm-ŏr	ăm-ĕr
	2.	ăm-ārĭs	ăm-ērĭs or ăm-ērĕ
	3.	ăm-ātŭr	ăm-ētŭr
Pl.	1	ăm-āmŭr	ăm-ēmŭr
	2	ăm-āmĭnī	ăm-ēmĭnī
	3	ăm-antŭr	ăm-entŭr
Imperf. S.	1	ăm-ābăr	ăm-ārĕr
	2	ăm-ābārĭs or ăm-ābārĕ	ăm-ārērĭs or ăm-ārērĕ
	3	ăm-ābātŭr	ăm-ārētŭr
Pl.	1	ăm-ābāmŭr	ăm-ārēmŭr
	2.	ăm-ābāmĭnī	ăm-ārēmĭnī
	3.	ăm-abantŭr	ăm-ārentŭr
Fut. S.	1	ăm-ābŏr
	2.	ăm-ābĕrĭs or am-ābĕrĕ
	3.	ăm-ābĭtŭr
Pl.	1	ăm-ābĭmŭr
	2	ăm-ābĭmĭnī
	3	ăm-ābuntŭr
Perf. S.	1	ăm-ātŭs sum	ăm-ātŭs sim
	2	ăm-ātŭs ĕs	ăm-ātŭs sīs
	3	ăm-ātŭs est	ăm-ātŭs sĭt
Pl.	1	ăm-ātī sŭmŭs	ăm-ātī sīmŭs
	2	ăm-ātī estĭs	ăm-ātī sītĭs
	3	ăm-ātī sunt	ăm-ātī sint
Plup. S.	1	ăm-ātŭs ĕram	ăm-ātŭs essēm
	2	ăm-ātŭs ĕrās	ăm-ātŭs essēs
	3	ăm-ātŭs ĕrăt	ăm-ātŭs essĕt
Pl.	1	ăm-ātī ĕrāmŭs	ăm-ātī essēmŭs
	2	ăm-ātī ĕrātĭs	ăm-ātī essētĭs
	3	ăm-ātī ĕrant	ăm-ātī essent
Fut. Perf. S.	1	ăm-ātŭs ĕrŏ
	2	ăm-ātūs ĕrĭs
	3	ăm-ātŭs ĕrĭt
Pl.	1	ăm-ātī ĕrĭmŭs
	2	ăm-ātī ĕrĭtĭs
	3	ăm-ātī ĕrunt

Imperative.

	Sing.	Plur.
2	ăm-ārĕ; ăm-ātŏr	ăm-āmĭnī
3	ăm-ātŏr	ăm-antŏr

Verbals.

Infin. Pres.	ăm-ārī	Perf.	ăm-ātŭs essĕ
Part. Perf.	ăm-ātŭs, -ă, -um
Gerundive	ăm-andŭs, -ă, -um

§ 70.Second Conjugation.
Passive Voice.

		Ind.	Subj.
Pres. S.	1	mŏn-ĕŏr	mon-ĕăr
	2	mŏn-ērĭs	mŏn-ĕārĭs or mŏn-ĕārĕ
	3	mŏn-ētŭr	mŏn-ĕātŭr
Pl.	1	mŏn-ēmŭr	mŏn-ĕāmŭr
	2	mŏn-ēmĭnī	mŏn-ĕāmĭnī
	3	mŏn-entŭr	mŏn-ĕantŭr
Imperf. S.	1	mŏn-ēbăr	mŏn-ērĕr
	2	mŏn-ēbărĭs or mŏn-ēbārĕ	mŏn-ērērĭs or mŏn-ērērĕ
	3	mŏn-ēbātŭr	mŏn-ērētŭr
Pl.	1	mŏn-ēbāmŭr	mŏn-ērēmŭr
	2	mŏn-ēbāmĭnī	mŏn-ērēmĭnī
	3	mŏn-ēbantŭr	mŏn-ērentŭr
	2	mŏn-ēbĕrĭs or mŏn-ēbĕrĕ
	3	mŏn-ēbĭtŭr
Pl.	1	mŏn-ēbĭmŭr
	2	mŏn-ēbĭmĭni
	3	mŏn-ēbuntŭr
Perf. S	1	mŏn-ĭtŭs sum	mŏn-ĭtŭs sim
	2	mŏn-ĭtŭs ĕs	mŏn-ĭtŭs sīs
	3	mŏn-ĭtŭs est	mŏn-ĭtŭs sĭt
Pl.	1	mŏn-ĭtī sŭmŭs	mŏn-ĭtī sīmŭs
	2	mŏn-ĭtī estĭs	mŏn-ĭtī sītĭs
	3	mŏn-ĭtī sunt	mŏn-ĭtī sint
Plup. S.	1	mŏn-ĭtŭs ĕram	mŏn-ĭtŭs essem
	2	mŏn-ĭtŭs ĕrās	mŏn-ĭtŭs essēs
	3	mŏn-ĭtŭs ĕrăt	mŏn-ĭtŭs essĕt
Pl.	1	mŏn-ĭtī ĕrāmŭs	mŏn-ĭtī essēmŭs
	2	mŏn-ĭtī ĕrātĭs	mŏn-ĭtī essētĭs
	3	mŏn-ĭtī ĕrant	mŏn-ĭtī essent
Fut. Perf. S.	1	mŏn-ĭtŭs ĕrō
	2	mŏn-ĭtŭs ĕrĭs
	3	mŏn-ĭtus ĕrĭt
Pl.	1	mŏn-ĭtī ĕrĭmŭs
	2	mŏn-ĭtī ĕrĭtĭs
	3	mŏn-ĭtī ĕrunt

	Imperative.
	Sing.	Plur.
2	mŏn-ērĕ; mŏn-ētŏr	mŏn-ēmĭnī
3	mŏn-ētŏr	mŏn-entŏr

Verbals.
Infin. Pres.	mŏn-ērī	Perf.	mŏn-ĭtŭs essĕ
Part. Perf.	mŏn-ĭtŭs, -ă, -um
Gerundive	mŏn-endŭs, -ă, -um

§ 71.Third Conjugation.

Passive Voice.

	Ind.		Subj.
Pres. S.	1	rĕg-ŏr	rĕg-ăr
	2	rĕg-ĕrĭs	rĕg-ārĭs or rĕg-ārĕ
	3	rĕg-ĭtŭr	rĕg-ātŭr
Pl.	1	rĕg-ĭmŭr	rĕg-āmŭr
	2	rĕg-ĭmĭnī	rĕd-āmĭnī
	3	rĕg-untŭr	rĕg-antŭr
Imperf. S.	1	rĕg-ēbăr	rĕg-ĕrĕr
	2	rĕg-ēbārĭs or rĕg-ēbārĕ	rĕg-ĕrērĭs or rĕg-ĕrērĕ
	3	rĕg-ēbātŭr	rĕg-ĕrētŭr
Pl.	1	rĕg-ēbāmŭr	rĕg-ĕrēmŭr
	2	rĕg-ēbāmĭnī	rĕg-ĕrēmĭnī
	3	rĕg-ēbantŭr	rĕg-ĕrentŭr
Fut. S.	1	reg-ăr
	2	rĕg-ērĭs or rĕg-ērĕ
	3	rĕg-ētŭr
Pl.	1	rĕg-ēmŭr
	2	rĕg-ēmĭnī
	3	rĕg-entŭr
Perf. S.	1	rēc-tŭs sum	rēc-tŭs sim
	2	rēc-tŭs ĕs	rēc-tŭs sīs
	3	rĕc-tŭs est	rĕc-tĕs sĭt
Pl.	1	rēc-tī sŭmŭs	rēc-tī sīmŭs
	2	rēc-tī estĭs	rēc-tī sītĭs
	3	rēc-tī sunt	rēc-tī sint
Plup. S.	1	rēc-tŭs ĕram	rēc-tŭs essem
	2	rēc-tŭs ĕrās	rēc-tŭs essēs
	3	rēc-tŭs ĕrăt	rēc-tŭs essĕt
Pl.	1	rēc-tī ĕrāmŭs	rēc-tī essēmŭs
	2	rēc-tī ĕrātĭs	rēc-tī essētĭs
	3	rēc-tī ĕrant	rēc-tī essent
	2	rēc-tŭs ĕrĭs
	3	rēc-tŭs ĕrĭt
Pl.	1	rēc-tī ĕrĭmŭs
	2	rēc-tī ĕrĭtĭs
	3	rēc-tī ĕrunt

	Imperative.
	Sing.	Plur.
2	rĕg-ĕrĕ; rĕg-ĭtŏr	rĕg-ĭmĭnī
3	rĕg-ĭtŏr	rĕg-untŏr

Verbals.
Infin. Pres.	rĕg-ī	Perf.	rēc-tŭs essĕ
Part. Perf.	rēc-tŭs, -ă, -ŭm
Gerundive	rĕg-endŭs, -ă, -um

§72.Fourth Conjugation.

Passive Voice.

		Ind.	Subj.
Pres. S.	1	aud-ĭŏr	aud-ĭăr
	2	aud-īrĭs	aud-ĭārĭs or aud-ĭārĕ
	3	aud-ītŭr	aud-ĭātŭr
Pl.	1	aud-īmŭr	aud-ĭāmŭr
	2	aud-īmĭnī	aud-ĭāmĭnī
	3	aud-ĭuntŭr	aud-ĭantŭr
Imperf. S.	1	aud-ĭēbăr	aud-īrĕr
	2	aud-ĭēbārĭs or aud-ĭēbārĕ	aud-īrērĭs or aud-īrērĕ
	3	aud-ĭēbātŭr	aud-īrētŭr
Pl.	1	aud-ĭēbāmŭr	aud-īrēmŭr
	2	aud-ĭēbāmĭnī	aud-īrēmĭnī
	3	aud-ĭēbantŭr	aud-īrentŭr
Fut. S.	1	aud-ĭăr
	2	aud-ĭērĭs or aud-ĭērĕ
	3	aud-ĭētŭr
Pl.	1	aud-ĭēmŭr
	2	aud-ĭēmĭnī
	3	aud-ĭentŭr
Perf. S.	1	aud-ītŭs sum	aud-ītŭs sim
	2	aud-ītŭs ĕs	and-ītŭs sīs
	3	aud-ītŭs est	aud-ītŭs sĭt
Pl.	1	aud-ītī sŭmŭs	aud-ītī sīmŭs
	2	aud-ītī estĭs	aud-ītī sītĭs
	3	aud-ītī sunt	aud-ītī sint
Plup. S.	1	aud-ītŭs ĕram	aud-ītŭs essem
	2	aud-ītŭs ĕrās	aud-ītŭs essēs
	3	aud-ītŭs ĕrăt	aud-ītŭs essĕt
Pl.	1	aud-ītī ĕrāmŭs	aud-ītī essēmŭs
	2	aud-ītī ĕrātĭs	aud-ītī essētĭs
	3	aud-ītī ĕrant	aud-ītī essent
Fut. Perf. S.	1	aud-ītŭs ĕrō
	2	aud-ītŭs ĕrĭs
	3	aud-ītŭs ĕrĭt
Pl.	1	aud-ītī ĕrĭmŭs
	2	aud-ītī ĕrĭtĭs
	3	aud-ītī ĕrunt

Imperative.
	Sing.	Plur.
2	aud-īrĕ; aud-ītŏr	aud-īmĭnī
3	aud-ītŏr	aud-ĭuntŏr

Verbals.
Infin. Pres.	aud-īrī	Perf.	aud-ītŭs essĕ
Part. Perf.	aud-ītŭs, -ă, -um
Gerundive	aud-ĭendŭs, -ă, -um

§. 73.Paradigm of the Four Conjugations.

Active Voice

Passive Voice

IND	Pres.	Imperf.	Fut.			Perf.	Plup.	Fut. Pref.
arn-	ō	ābam	ābō	amāv	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \\\ \\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	ī	eram	erō
mon-	eō	ēbam	ēbō	monu-
reg-	ō	ēbam	am	rēx
aud-	iō	iēbam	iam	audīv

IND	Pres.	Imperf.	Fut.			Perf.	Plup.	Fut. Pref.
am-	or	ābar	ābor	amātus	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \\\ \\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$
mon-	eor	ēbar	ēbor	monĭtus		sum	eram	erō
reg-	or	ēbar	ar	rēctus		(fuī)	(fueram)	(furerō)
aud-	ior	iēbar	iar	audītus

Subj.	Pres.	Imperf.			Pref.	Plup.	Impreative
am-	em	ārem	amāv	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \\\ \\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	erim	issem	am-	ā	ātō
mon-	eam	ērem	monu				mon	ē	ētō
reg-	am	ĕrem	rĕx-				reg-	ē	ĭtō
aud-	iam	ĭrem	audīv				aud-	ī	ĭtō

Subj.	Pres.	Imperf.			Pref.	Plup.	Impreative
am-	er	ārer	amātus	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \\\ \\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$			am-	āre	ātor
mon-	ear	ērer	monitus		sim	esem	mon-	ēre	ētor
reg-	ar	ĕrer	rēctus		(fuerim)	(fussiem)	reg-	ĕre	ĭtor
aud-	iar	īrer	auditus				aud-	īre	ītor

Inf. Pres.	Perf			Fut.			Part. Pres.	Fut.
amāre	amāv-	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	isse	amāt-	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$		am-ans	amat-ūrus
mon-ēre	monu-			monīt		ūrum	mon-ēns	monit-ūrus
reg-ēre	rēx			rēct		(esse)	reg ēns	rēct-ūurus
aud-īre	audiv-			audīt-			aud-iēns	audīt-ūrus

Inf.Pres.	Perf.			Fut.[1]			Fut. Perf.
am-ārī	amātus	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$		amātum	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	īrī	amātus	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	fore
mon-ērī	mon-ĭtus		esse	monĭtum			monĭtus
reg-ī	rēctus		(fuisse)	rēctum			rēctus
aud-īrī	audītus			audītum			audīitus

Gerunds	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	amand-um, i, ō	regend-um, ī, ō
		monend-um, ī, ō	audiend-um, ī, ō
Supines	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	amāt-um, ū	rect-um, ū
		monit-um, ū	audit-um, ū

Perf. part	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	āmātus	rēctus
monĭtus		audītus
Gerundive	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	amandus	regends
		monendus	audiendus

§ 74.Verbs in -ĭō of the Third Conjugation.

Many Verbs of the Third Conjugation have -ĭō in the I Pers. Sing. Pres. Ind.

Ex. căp-ĕrĕ to take.
Active Voice.
		Ind.	Subj.
Pers. S.	1	căp-ĭō	cap-ĭam
	2	căp-ĭs	căp-ĭās, &c.
	3	căp-ĭt
Pl.	1	căp-ĭmŭs
	2	căp-ĭtĭs
	3	căp-ĭunt
Imperf.		căp-ĭēbăm, &c.	căp-ĕrem, &c.
Fut.		căp-ĭam, &c.
Perf		cēp-ī, &c.	cēp-ĕrim, &c.
Plup.		cēp-ĕram, &c.	cēp-issem, &c.
Fut. Perf.		cēp-ĕrō, &c.

Imperative.
	Sing.	Plur.
2	căp-ĕ; căp-ĭtō	căp-ĭtĕ; căp-ĭtōtĕ
3	căp-ĭtō	căp-ĭuntō

Verbals.
Infin. Pres.	căp-ĕrĕ	Perf.	cēp-issĕ
Gerund	căp-ĭendum, &c.	Supine.	cap-tum, -tū
Part. Pres.	căp-ĭēns, -ĭentĭs	Fut.	cap-tūrŭs

Passive Voice.
		Ind.	Subj.
Pers. S.	1	căp-ĭŏr	căp-ĭăr
	2	căp-ĕrĭs	căp-ĭārĭs or căp-ĭārĕ, &c.
	3	căp-ĭtŭr	Pl.	1	căp-ĭmŭr
	2	căp-ĭmĭnī
	3	căp-ĭuntŭr
Imperf.		căp-ĭēbăr, &c.	căp-ĕrĕr, &c.
Fut.		căp-ĭăr, &c.
Perf.		cap-tŭs sum	cap-tŭs sim
Plup.		cap-tŭs ĕram	cap-tŭs essem
Fut. Perf.		cap-tŭs ĕrō

Imperative.
	Sing.	Plur.
2	căp-ĕrĕ; căp-ĭtŏr	căp-ĭmĭnī
3	căp-ĭtŏr	căp-ĭuntŏr

Verbals.
Inf. Pres.	căp-ī	Perf.	cap-tŭs essĕ
Part. Perf.	cap-tŭs, -ă, -um
Gerundive	căp-ĭendŭs, -ă, -um

Conjugation of Deponent Verbs.

§ 75. Deponent Verbs are conjugated with all the Passive inflexions of the conjugation to which they belong.

They have also—

(a) A form in -rĕ of the Pres. Ind. 2 Pers. Sing., and

{b) The Pres. Participle, the Gerund, and the Supine.

Ex. hort-ārī to advise

Conjugated like the Passive of ămārĕ: except Pres. Ind. S. 2 hort-ārĭs or hort-ārĕ.

Add:

Part. Pres. N.	hort-āns	G.	hort-antĭs, &c.
Gerund N. Acc.	hort-andum	Supine Acc.	hort-ātum
G.	hort-andī	Abl.	hort-ātū
D. Abl.	hort-andō

Remarks on the Conjugation of Regular Verbs.

§ 76. Any Latin Verb (except a very few irregular Verbs, see §§ 81ff.) may be conjugated according to the preceding models, provided we know:

(1) The Pres. Infin., showing to what Conjugation the Verb belongs;

(2) The Pres. Ind. (1 Pers. Sing.), by which we know the Pres. Subj., the Fut. and Imperf. Ind. and Subj., the Pres. Participle, the Gerund, the Gerundive;

(3) The Perf. Ind. (1 Pers. Sing.), by which we know the Perf. Subj., the Plup. Ind. and Subj., the Fut. Perf., the Perf. Inf.;

(4) The Supine (Acc.), by which we know the Perf. Participle, and so the Compound tense of the Passive, the Abl. Supine, the Fut. Participle.

These are therefore called the Principal Parts of a Verb. A list will be given in the Second Part (§§ 287 sqq.) of the Principal Parts of all Verbs of the Third Conjugation, and of all those of the other Conjugations which vary from the model of ămāre, mŏnēre, audīre.

§ 77. First Conjugation.—The Perf. sometimes has -ŭī instead of -āvī, and the Supine -ĭtum instead of -ātum; as—

cŭbō

cŭbŭī

cŭbĭtum

cŭbāre

lie

§ 78. Second and Third Conjugations.—The Perf. is formed from the base of the Verb in five different ways, viz.:

I. By adding -ŭī or -ēvī (2nd Conj.), or -īvī (3rd Conj.).

II. By adding -sī.

x is written for gs, cs, and when the Base ends with two consonants one is dropped when -sī is added.

III. By Reduplication: i.e., by prefixing the first consonant of the Base together with a short vowel.

IV. By Lengthening the vowel of the Base.

V. (3rd Conj. only) with no change (except adding the inflexion -ī).

The Supine is formed by -tum, -ĭtum, or -sum, (more rarely) -ītum (3rd Conj.); -ētum (2nd Conj.).

In forming the Perfect and Supine n is often dropped from the base of the Verb. Other omissions of consonantal and modifications of vowel sounds will be observed in the examples.

§ 79. Examples:

Second Conjugation.

I.	dŏcĕō	dŏcŭī	doctum	dŏcēre	teach
	dēlĕō	dēlēvī	dēlētum	dēlēre	blot out
II.	ārdĕō	ārsī	ārsum	ārdēre	burn (intr.)
III.	mordĕō	mŏmordī	morsum	mordēre	bite
IV.	mŏvĕō	mōvī	mōtum	mŏvēre	move
V.	(No examples).

Third Conjugation.

I.	cōnsŭlō	cōnsŭlŭī	cōnsultum	cōnsŭlĕre	consult
	pĕtō	pĕtīvī	pĕtītum	pĕtĕre	seek
II.	claudō	clausī	clausum	claudĕre	shut
	fīgō	fīxī	fīxum	fīgĕre	fix
	fingō	fīnxī	fīctum	fingĕre	mould
	nūbō	nūpsī	nūptum	nūbĕre	marry (of a woman)
III.	cădō	cĕcĭdī	cāsum	cădĕre	fall
	curro	cŭcurrī	cursum	currĕre	run
	părĭō	pĕpĕrī	partum	părĕre	bring forth
IV.	lĕgō	lēgī	lēctum	lĕgĕre	choose
	făcĭō	fēcī	factum	făcĕre	make
	vincō	vīcī	victum	vincĕre	conquer
V.	bĭbō	bĭbī		bĭbĕre	drink

§ 80. Fourth Conjugation.—The Perf. sometimes has -ŭī, sometimes -sī instead of -īvī; the Supine, in such cases, and in one other Verb, ends in -tum or -sum instead of -ītum.

Examples:

ăpĕrĭō	ăpĕrŭi	ăpertum	ăpĕrīre	open
sentĭō	sēnsī	sēnsum	sentīre	feel
sĕpĕlĭō	sĕpĕlīvī	sĕpultum	sĕpĕlīre	bury

§ 81. Conjugation of Irregular Verbs.—dăre to give.

Active Voice.
		Ind.	Subj.
Pres. S.	1	dō	dem
	2	dās	dēs
	3	dăt	dĕt
Pl.	1	dămŭs	dēmŭs
	2	dătĭs	dētis
	3	dant	dent
Imperf. S.		dăbam, &c.	dărem, &c.
Fut.		dăbō, &c.
Perf.		dĕdī, &c.	dĕdĕrim, &c.
Plup.		dĕdĕram, &c.	dĕdissem, &c.
Fut.Perf.		dĕdĕrō, &c.

Imperative.
	Sing.	Plur.
2	dā; dătō	dătĕ; dătōtĕ
3	dătō	dantō

Verbals.
Inf. Pres.	dărĕ	Perf.	dĕdissĕ
Gerund.	dandum, &c.	Supine.	dătum, -ū
Part. Pres.	dāns, dantĭs, &c.	Fut.	dătūrŭs,-ă,-um,&c.

Passive Voice

		Ind.	Subj.
Pres. S.	1	dŏr	—
	2	dărĭs	dērĭs
	3	dătŭr	dētŭr
Pl.	1	dămŭr	—
	2	dămĭnī	dēmĭnī
	3	dantŭr	dentŭr
Imperf.		dăbăr, &c.	dărĕr, &c.
Fut.		dăbŏr, &c.
Perf.		dătŭs sum, &c.	dătŭs sim, &c.
Plup.		dătŭs ĕram, &c.	dătŭs essem, &c.
Fut. Perf.		dătŭs ĕrō, &c.

Verbals.

Inf. Pres.	dărī	Perf.	dătŭs essĕ
Part. Perf.	dătŭs, -ă, -um
Gerundive	dandŭs, -ă, -um

§ 82.Compounds of essĕ to be.

The following differences from the Simple Verb should be noted:

absum am away, has Pres. Part. absēns, G. absentĭs. So praesum be over, Pres. Part. praesēns, but only in the sense of present.

dēsum am wanting, contracts its e's, as deessĕ pronounced dēssĕ, deeram pronounced dēram.

prōsum am useful, has prōd- where a vowel follows as prōd-est.

possum am able, can is a compound of pŏtĕ (an old Adj. meaning able) and sum. It is conjugated in full below.

§ 83.possĕ to be able.

		Ind.	Subj.
Pres. S.	1	possum	possim
	2	pŏtĕs	possīs
	3	pŏtest	possĭt
Pl.	1	possŭmŭs	possīmŭs
	2	pŏtestĭs	possītĭs
	3	possunt	possint
Imperf.		pŏtĕram, &c. (like ĕram)	possem, &c.
Fut.		pŏtĕrō, &c. (like ĕrō)
Perf.		pŏtŭī, &c	pŏtŭĕrim, &c.
Plup.		pŏtŭĕram, &c.	pŏtŭissem, &c.
Fut. Perf.		pŏtŭĕrō, &c.
		Inf. Pres. possĕ.Perf. pŏtŭissĕ
		Other parts wanting.

§ 84. ferrĕ to bear.

Active Voice.

Ind.			Subj.
Pres. S.	1	fĕrō	Pres.		fĕram, &c.
	2	fers	Imperf. S.	1	ferrem
	3	fert		2	ferrēs
Pl.	1	fĕrĭmŭs		3	ferrĕt
	2	fertĭs	Pl.	1	ferrēmŭs
	3	fĕrunt		2	ferrētĭs
Imperf.		fĕrēbam, &c.		3	ferrent
Fut.		fĕram, &c.
Perf.		tŭlī, &c.			tŭlĕrim, &c.
Plup.		tŭlĕram, &c.			tŭlissem, &c.
Fut. Perf.		tŭlĕrō, &c.

Imperative.
	Sing.	Plur.
2	fĕr; fertō	fertĕ; fertōtē
3	fertō	fĕruntō

Verbals.
Infin. Pres.	ferrĕ	Perf.	tŭlissĕ
Gerund	fĕrendum, &c.	Supine.	lātum
Part. Pres.	fĕrēns, -entĭs	Fut.	lātūrŭs, -ă, -um

Passive Voice.

	Ind.			Subj.
Pres. S.	1	fĕrŏr	Pres.		fĕrăr, &c.
	2	ferrĭs	Imperf. S.	1	ferrĕr
	3	fertŭr		2	ferrērĭs or ferrērĕ
Pl.	1	fĕrĭmŭr		3	ferrētŭr
	2	fĕrĭmĭnī	Pl.	1	ferrēmŭr
	3	fĕruntŭr		2	ferrēmĭnī
Imperf.		fĕrēbăr, &c.		3	ferrentŭr
Fut.		fĕrăr, &c.
Perf.		lātŭs sum, &c.			lātŭs sim, &c.
Plup.		lātŭs ĕram, &c.			lātŭs essem, &c.
Fut. Perf.		lātŭs ĕrō, &c.

Imperative.
	Sing.	Plur.
2	ferrĕ; fertŏr	fĕrĭmĭnī
3	fertŏr	fĕruntŏr

Verbals.
Inf. Pres.	ferrī	Perf.	lātŭs essĕ
Part. Perf.	lātŭs, -ă, -um	Gerundive	fĕrendŭs, -ă, -um

§ 85.ĕdĕrĕ or ēssĕ to eat.

This Verb has all the regular forms, but it has also the following irregular alternative forms:

Active Voice.

		Ind.			Subj.
Pres. S.	1	ĕdō	Imperf. S.	1	ĕdĕrem or ēssem
	2	ĕdĭs or ēs		2	ĕdĕrēs or ēssēs
	3	ĕdĭt or ēst		3	ĕdĕrĕt or ēssĕt
	2	ĕdĭtĭs or ēstĭs		2	ĕdĕrētĭs or essetis
	3	ĕdunt		3	ĕdĕrent or ēssent

Imperative.
	Sing.	Plur.
2	ĕdĕ or ēs, ĕdĭtō or ēstŏ	ĕdĭtĕ or ēstĕ, ĕdĭtōtĕ or ēstōtĕ
3	ĕdĭtō or ēstō	ĕduntō
Inf. Pres.	ĕdĕrĕ or ēssĕ

Passive Voice.

Ind. Pres. S.	2	ĕdĭtŭr or ēstŭr
Subj. Imperf. S.	3	ĕdĕrētŭr or 'ēssētĕr

§86. vellĕ to wish.

		Ind.	Subj.
Pres. S.	1	vōlō	vĕlim
	2	vīs	vĕlīs
	3	vult (volt)	vĕlĭt
Pl.	1	vŏlŭmŭs	vĕlimŭs
	2	vultĭs (voltĭs)	vĕlītĭs
	3	vŏlunt	vĕlint
Imperf.		vŏlēbam, &c.	vellem, &c.
Fut.		vŏlam, &c. (like rĕgam)
Perf.		vŏlŭī, &c.	vŏlŭĕrim, &c.
Plup.		vŏlŭĕram, &c.	vŏlŭissem, &c.
Fut. Perf.		vŏlŭĕrō, &c.

Imperative wanting

Verbals.

Inf. Pres.	vellĕ	Perf.	vŏlŭisse
Gerund	vŏlendum, &c.
Part. Pres.	vŏlēns, -entĭs, &c.

The other Verbals wanting.

§ 87.nōllĕ to be unwilling.

		Ind.	Subj.
Pres. S.	1	nōlō	nōlim
	2	nōn vīs	nōlīs
	3	nōn vult	nŏlĭt
Pl.	1	nōlŭmŭs	nōlīmŭs
	2	nōn vultĭs	nōlītĭs
	3	nōlunt	nōlint
Imperf.		nōlēbam, &c.	nōllem, &c.
Fut.		colspan=2——[2] noles, nolet, &c.
Perf.		nōlŭī, &c.	nōlŭĕrim, &c.
Plup.		nōlŭĕram, &c.	nōlŭissem, &c,
Perf.		nōlŭĕro, &c.

Imperative.
S.	2	nōlī; nōlītō	nōlītĕ; nōlītōtĕ
	3	nōlītō	nōluntō

Verbals.
Infin. Pres.	nōllĕ	Perf.	nōlŭissĕ
Part. Pres.	nōlēns, -entis

Other Verbals wanting.

§ 88.māllĕ to prefer.

		Ind.	Subj.
Pres. S.	1	mālō	mālim
	2	māvīs	mālīs
	3	māvult	mālĭt
Pl.	1	mālŭmŭs	mālīmŭs
	2	māvultĭs	mālitĭs
	3	mālunt	mālint
Imperf.		mālebam, &c.	māllem, &c.
Fut.		——[2] mālēs, mālĕt. &c.
Perf.		mālŭī, &c.	mālŭĕrim, &c.
Plup.		mālŭĕram, &c.	mālŭissem, &c.
Fut. Perf.		mălŭĕrō, &c.

Imperative wanting.

Verbals.

Infin. Pres.

māllĕ

Perf.

mālŭissĕ

Other Verbals wanting.

§ 89.īrĕ to go.

		Ind.	Subj.
Pres. S.	1	ĕo	ĕam
	2	is	ĕās
&nbspl	3	ĭt	ĕăt
Pl.	1	īmŭs	ĕāmŭs
	2	ītĭs	ĕātĭs
	3	ĕunt	ĕant
Imperf.		ībam, &c.	īrem, &c.
Fut.		ībo, &c.
Perf.		īvī, &c.	īvĕrim, &c.
Plup.		īvĕram, &c.	īvissem, &c.
Fut. Perf.		īvĕrō, &c.

Imperative.

	Sing.	Plur.
2	ī; ītō	ītĕ; ītōtĕ
3	ītō	ĕuntō

Verbals.

Infin. Pres.	īrĕ	Perf.	īvissĕ
Gerund	ĕundum, &c.	Supine	ĭtum, ĭtū
Part. Pres N.	ĭēns	Fut.	ĭtūrŭs, -ă, -um
G.	ĕuntis, &c.

The compounds of this Verb nearly always omit v, shortening the preceding ī, in the Perf., Plup., Fut. Perf. If s follows, the i's contract into ī.

Thus, from ăbīrĕ depart:

Perf.	ăbĭī, ăbīstī, ăbĭīt,[3] &c.	Plup. Ind.	ăbĭĕram.
Subj.	ăbīssem.	Inf. Perf.	ăbīssĕ, &c.

§ 90. quīrĕ to be able, nĕquīrĕ to be unable.

These Verbs are conjugated like īrĕ. The Imperative, and the Participle, Supine, Gerund, and Gerundive are wanting. The only forms occurring, except very rarely, in the Classical period are:

Pres. Ind. quĕō; nĕquĕō, nĕquĭt, nĕquĕunt
Pres. Subj. quĕam, &c.; nĕquĕam, &c.

§ 91. fĭĕrī to become, to be made.

This Verb, though Active in form (except in Inf.), is used as the Passive of făcĭō, fēcī, factum, făcĕrĕ make.

The Compound tenses are supplied by factŭs, the Perf. Participle of făcĭō, and fĕrĕ as the Fut. Inf. The Gerundive is făcĭendŭs. fŭtūrŭs is used as the Fut. Part.

Note that the ī is long except before -ĕr and in fĭt.

	Ind.	Subj.
Pres. S.	1	fīō	fīam
	2	fīs	fīās
	3	fĭt	fīăt
Pl.	1	——	fīāmŭs
	1	——	fīātĭs
	2	fīunt	fīant
Imperf.		fīēbam, &c.	fĭĕrem, &c.
Fut.		fīam, fīēs, &c. (like rĕgam)
Imper. S.	2	fī	Infin. Pres.		fĭĕrī

Defective Verbs.

§ 92. āiō I say.

Pres. Ind.	āiō, ais, ait[4]; āiunt
Imperf. Ind.	āiēbam, &c.
Pres. Subj.	āiāt
Part. Pres.	āiēns

§ 93. inquam I say.

Pres. Ind.	inquam, inquĭs, inquĭt[4]; inquĭmŭs, inquĭunt
Imperf. Ind.	inquībăt
Fut. Ind.	inquĭēs, inquĭĕt
Perf. Ind.	inquĭī, inquīstī

§ 94. fārī to say (poetical).

Pres. Ind.	fātŭr; fāmŭr
Fut. Ind.	fābŏr, fābĭtŭr
Perf. Ind.	fātŭs est, fātī sunt
Plup. Ind.	fātŭs ĕram, ĕrăt
Imperat. S. 2	fārĕ
Infin. Pres.	fārī	Gerund	fandī, fandō
Part. Pres.	fantem, fantī.	Supine	fătŭ
Part. Perf.	fātŭs	Gerundive	fandŭs

A few other forms are used in compounds.

§ 95. mĕmĭnissĕ to remember, coepissĕ to begin, ōdissĕ to hate, have no Present base. The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future-Perfect forms are used in the sense of the Present, Imperfect, and Future respectively.

The only other forms are :

Of memini: Imper. S. 2 mĕmentō Pl. 2 mĕmentōtĕ

Of ōdī: Part. Fut. ōsūr ŭs, -a, um.

Of coepī: Part. Perf. coeptŭs, from which the Compound tenses are formed as from a Deponent Verb (§ 75).

ADVERBS.

§ 96. Adverbs may be classified according to meaning, as (i) Modal, (2) Local, (3) Temporal.

§ 97. Modal Adverbs denote Manner.

For the ordinary Adjectival Adverbs, see §§41 sqq.

Examples of other Modal Adverbs are: partirm partly, părum too little, clam secretly, sătĭs enough, invĭcem in turn, fortĕ by chance, quōmŏdŏ in what way, how? quam how? tam so, ĭta thus, sīc thus, ŭtī, ŭt how?

§ 98. Under Modal Adverbs may be classed—

Adverbs of Negation: nōn, nē not.

Adverbs of Assertion or Emphasis; as certē, sānē certainly, scīlĭcĕt of course, quĭdem indeed, etc.; tantum only, mŏdŏ only.

Adverbs of Interrogation (used to ask a question^[5]): ŭtrum, -nĕ, num, ăn. See § 210.

Numerous words which express Inference or Cause are properly Adverbs; but with the exception of Interrogatives such as cūr, quārē, quĭănam? why? they are classed as Conjunctions. See § 103.

§ 99. Local Adverbs denote Place.

ŭbĭ where, quō whither, hinc hence, nūsquam nowhere.

Temporal Adverbs denote Time.

hŏdĭē to-day, cum^[6] when? iam already, quŏtĭēns^[7] how many times? tŏtĭēns^[7]so many times, antĕā before, sĭmŭl at the same time.

§ 100. Numeral Adverbs.—The Adverbs answering the question quŏtĭēns how often? are:—sĕmĕl once, bĭs twice, tĕr three times, quătĕr four times. From quīnquĭēns five times to mīlĭēns a thousand times, these Adverbs are formed from the Cardinal Numerals by the inflexion -ĭēns (or -ĭēs). See § 44.

§ 101. PREPOSITIONS.

Prepositions in Latin have two uses :

(1) As separate words used with Oblique case of Nouns or Pronouns. See §§ 135, 153.

(2) As prefixes in composition with Verbs, Adjectives, and other words, see § 296.

§ 102. CONJUNCTIONS.

Conjunctions are either Co-ordinate or Subordinate.

Co-ordinate Conjunctions connect words and phrases, and similar (Co-ordinate) clauses and sentences.

Subordinate Conjunctions connect Dependent or Subordinate with Principal clauses. For these see the Syntax.

§ 103. Co-ordinate Conjunctions are:

1. Copulative, denoting Union, as Eng. and (both . . . and, also): ĕt, -quĕ, atquĕ (or āc), ĕtĭam, quoquĕ.

2. Disjunctive, denoting Separation or Distinction, as Eng. or (either ... or): aut, -vĕ, vĕl, sīvĕ (or seu). After a Question; ăn, -nĕ.

Combined with a Negative nĕc, nĕquĕ; nēvĕ, neu (neither, nor, and not).

3. Adversative, denoting Opposition, as Eng. but (however, nevertheless, &c.) : sĕd, ăt, tămĕn, vērum, autem.

Add to these Conjunctions or Adverbs expressing:

4. Inference, as Eng. therefore: ĭdĕō, idcircō, proptĕrĕā on that account, ĭtăquĕ and so, ērgō, ĭgĭtŭr therefore.

5. Cause, as Eng. for : nam, namque, 6nim.

§ 104.INTERJECTIONS.

Interjections are properly natural cries expressing feelings, as ō oh! ēn, eccĕ lo! vae, heu, ēheu alas! ā, prō ah! or expressing desires or commands, as heus hollo! ēiă ho! st hush! But other words (often abbreviated) are used as Interjections, as nĕsās monstrous! hercle by Hercules!

SYNTAX.

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§ 105. Accidence has shown us what are the different forms of words which are used in language. Syntax will now show us how and when these are to be employed. Syntax therefore deals with the construction and arrangement of words in a sentence. We shall first speak of Construction. For Arrangement or Order see § 432.

§106.SENTENCES.

A Sentence is a complete thought expressed in language. Sentences are either Simple or Complex.

§ 107. A Simple Sentence expresses one single independent thought, as urbs antīquă fŭit there-was an ancient city.

When two or more simple sentences are closely united, they are often called a Compound sentence as: ĕō rĕdĕō I go and return. A Co-ordinate Conjunction is often used to show the. connexion. See § 348.

§ 108. A Complex Sentence expresses one leading thought with one or more dependent thoughts: dōnĕc ĕris fēlīx, multōs nŭmĕrābĭs ămīcōs so-long-as you-shall-be fortunate, you-will-count many friends.

The parts of a complex sentence are called Clauses'. The part which contains the leading thought is called the Principal clause. The rest are called Subordinate or Dependent clauses. In the above example, multōs nŭmĕrābĭs ămīcos you-will-count many friends, is the Principal clause, and dōnĕc ĕris fēllx (which only states how long you will do so) the Subordinate clause.

§ 109. The four kinds of Sentences.—All sentences are divided according to their meaning. There are four kinds of Sentences which differ essentially.

I. Statements. Affirmative statement or Affirmation, tĭmĕō I am afraid; Negative statement or Negation, nōn tĭmĭō I am not afraid.

II. Questions (Interrogations), tĭmēs? are-you-afraid? quĭs tĭimet who is afraid?

III. Commands. Positive Commandj ī, pŭĕr! go, boy! Negative Command or Prohibition, nōlī īrĕ! do not go!

IV. Wishes, sīs fēlīx may-you-be fortunate; nē sīs fēlīx may you not be fortunate.

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THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.

§ 110. In every complete thought there are at least two ideas (or notions) and a certain connexion between them. In the boy is going the two ideas are represented by the boy called the Subject, and going called the Predicate; and is shows the connexion between them. The nature of the connexion is different in each of the four kinds of sentences.

§ 111. The Simple Sentence in its Shortest Forms.

1. Subject, Predicate, and connexion may be all expressed by one word. Thus: tĭmĭō I-am-afraid, ī go (Sing.), grandĭnăt it-hails.

2. Subject may be expressed by one word, and Predicate and connexion by another word. Thus: ăvĭs vŏlăt the-bird is flying or flies.

3. Subject may be expressed by one word, and Predicate by another word, connexion being left to be understood from the context: victī hostēs the enemy (are) conquered, rāra avis the bird (is) scarce. This is almost entirely confined to Statements where the Verb (if inserted) would be est or sunt; and where the Predicate is an Adjective or Participle.

4. The Subject and Predicate may be expressed by separate words, and connexion by a part of the Verb sum. Thus: victī sunt hostēs the enemy are (or have been) conquered, Mārcŭs sĭt fēlīx may Marcus be happy.

§ 112. Subject and Predicate.—The Subject, if separately expressed, must be a Noun or some word used as such, that is, a Pronoun, an Adjective used Substantivally, or a Verb in the Infinitive.

The Predicate is either expressed (together with connexion) by a Finite Verb, or else, as in 2 and 3, by an Adjective or a Noun or words which can be used in place of them.

Note that the third person Sing. & Plur. of a Verb cannot form a sentence by themselves, unless they are used in an Impersonal or an Indefinite sense (§ § 165, 166). Where they appear to do so, a subject is to be supplied from the context.

§ 113. Expanded Forms of the Simple Sentence.—In the foregoing sentences the Subject and the Predicate have been expressed by one word. But often several words are required to express them fully. In such cases the Subject or the Predicate is called Complex, and the added words are called Complements.

§ 114. Adjectival Complements or Attributes are added to Nouns to make their description complete, as vĭr bŏnŭs a good man, vĭr multārum virtūtum a man of many good-qualities.

Phrases consisting of a Preposition and a Noun are rarely used in Latin as Attributes. the man in the ditch is hŏmo quī in fossă est the man who is in the ditch.

§ 115. Substantival Complements.—Verbs often require the addition of some Noun or other word used Substantivally to complete their sense. Thus in Mārcŭs Gāĭō lĭbrum dōnăt Marcus presents a-book to-Gaius, lĭbrum is a Substantival complement to dōnăt, showing what Marcus presents, and G{subst:a-}}ĭō one showing to whom he presents it.

lĭbrum is called the Direct Object and Gāĭō the Indirect Object of dōnăt.

Other Complements are seen in prŏfĭciscāmŭr dŏmum let-us-set-out home, culpāamŭr ăb illīs (Noun with Preposition) we-are-blamed by those-men, īrĕ vult he-wishes to-go.

Substantival Complements are also found after Adjectives and a few Nouns, as sēcūrŭs mortĭs careless of-death, lēgĭbŭs obtempĕrātĭō obedience to-the-laws.

§ 116. Secondary Predicate.—A Verb sometimes requires an Adjectival Complement referring to its Subject or to its Object in oider to complete its sense: Gāĭŭs fit săpĭēns Gaius becomes wise, appellant Gāĭum săpĭentem they-call Gains wise. This Complement is called a Secondary Predicate to distinguish it from the Predicates of §§ 111, 112, which are called Primary.

§117. Adverbial. Complements are added to Verbs and Adjectives to show how they are limited in respect to Time, Place, Circumstances, Manner, Degree, and the like. In the Simple sentence, Adverbs and Oblique cases of Nouns (with or without attributes and prepositions) only are so used. Examples: postrīdĭē on-the-next-day (Time) Caesăr advēnĭt Cæsar arrived cum multā vī armātōrum with a-large force of-armed-men (Circumstance).

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CONSTRUCTION.

§ 118. It is impossible to read or write Latin without carefully attending to the Inflexions of words. If these are improperly used, the result is either that we contradict ourselves or that we convey a wrong meaning. Thus, if we say ăv-ēs vŏ1-ăt, we contradict ourselves; for the -ēs means that there are several birds, and the -āt that there is only one. In the following sentence: — Caesăr oppĭdum cum māgnā praedā căpĭt, ĭd ā mīlĭtibŭs crĕmātŭr Cæsar takes the-town, together with a-great (quantity of) plunder; it (i.e. the town) is-burnt by the-soldiers; id is in the Neuter, because it refers to the town. If you put ĭs (Masc.) it would mean the soldiers burnt Cæsar, and if you put ĕă (Fem.), it would mean they burnt the plunder.

Construction is of two kinds: Agreement^[8] and Government.

Agreement.

§ 119. A word is said to agree with the word or words to which its inflexions are conformed.

Agreement of one word with one other is called Simple Agreement.

Agreement of one word with more than one other word is called Composite Agreement.

Rules for Simple Agreement.

§ 120. I. Adjectives, used as Attributes or Predicates, agree with their Nouns in Gender, Number, and Case: vĭr bŏnŭs est the-man is good.

Under other circumstances they agree with them in Gender, or in Gender and Number, according to the sense: optĭmĕ rēgum best of kings!

Participles and Pronouns used Adjectivally follow the same rules as Adjectives. For the Agreement of the Relative see below.

II. Nouns, when used as Attributes or Predicates to other Nouns, agree with them in Number and Case. Tullŭs rēx King Tullus, Tullŭs rēx ĕrĕt Tullus was king.

When a Noun is used as an attribute to another Noun, it is said to be in Apposition to it.

III. A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in Number and Person: terră trĕmĭt, fūgērĕ fĕrae the-earth quakes, the-wild-beasts have-fled; tū pulsās, ĕgŏ vaāpŭlō you beat, I am-beaten.

§ 121. Agreement of the Relative.—That to which the Relative is referred is called its Antecedent.

1. If the Relative and the Antecedent are in the same clause, they agree in Gender, Number, and Case.

quam ăvem cēpī rārā est.

2. If the Relative and Antecedent are in different clauses, they agree in Gender and Number only.

ăvis quam cēpī rāră est.

Both of these sentences mean the bird which I have taken is scarce.

Rules for Composite Agreement.

§ 122. In Composite Agreement an Adjective or a Verb is referred to several Nouns, coupled by a Conjunction or Conjunctions.

Then we have two alternatives:

A. The Adjective or Verb may agree with the nearest Noun and be understood with the others, ĕt vĭr bŏnŭs est ĕt mŭlĭĕr both the-man and the-woman are good.

B. The Adjective or Verb may agree with both Nouns taken together.

Then the following rules are observed:

Number.—Always Plural.

Gender.—(a) If the Nouns refer to Persons, and are of the same gender, that gender is retained. But if they are of different genders, the Masculine gender is used.

(Of the same gender) Brūtŭs ĕt Cassĭŭs mortŭī sunt Brutus and Cassius are dead.

(Of different genders) vĭr ĕt mŭlĭĕr bŏnī sunt the-man and the-woman are good.

{b) If the Nouns refer to Things, and are of the same gender, that gender may be retained; but the Neuter gender is often used.

But if they are of different genders, the Neuter gender must be used.

(Of the same gender) ulmŭs et quercŭs nātūrā prōcērae sunt the-elm and the-oak are tall by-nature; stultĭtĭă ĕt tĭmĭdĭtās fŭgŭendă sunt folly and cowardice are to-be-avoided.

(Of different genders) lăbŏr vŏluptāsquē dissĭmĭllĭmă sunt toil and pleasure are most-unlike.

Person.—If the subjects of the Verb are of the same Person, the Verb is kept in that Person.

If they are of different Persons, it is put in the First Person rather than the Second or the Third, and in the Second Person rather than the Third.

(Of the same Person) ĕt terră ĕt fĕrae tremunt both the earth and the wild-beasts quake.

(Of different Persons) ĕgŏ ĕt tū vāpŭlāmŭs you and I are-beaten; tū ĕt illĕ vāpŭlātĭs you and he are-beaten.

Government.

§ 123. When one word requires another word to follow it in a particular inflexion, it is said to govern, and the following word to be governed by it. Thus, in nŏcĕt nōbīs he-is-harmful to-me, nŏcĕt is said to govern nōbīs, or to take the Dative nōbīs after it, and nōbīs is said to be governed by nŏcĕt or to be in the Dative after nŏcĕt.

The same expressions are used of phrases. Thus aptŭsy fit is said sometimes to take ăd with the Ace, as in aptŭs ad armă suited for arms.

Principal Rules of Government.

§ 124. Nouns take (that is, govern) the Genitive of other Nouns. See § 143.

§ 125. Adjectives and the Adverbs formed from them take the Genitive, Dative, and Ablative of Nouns.

§ 126. Verbs.—All Verbs which give a complete sense by themselves, as stō I-stand, do not affect the construction of other words in the sentence.

Transitive Verbs in the Active take the Accusative of their Object, and often a Noun in some other oblique case as well.

Intransitive Verbs which do not give a complete sense by themselves are of two kinds:

(i) Those which require a Noun as Complement (§ 115) to complete their sense. These take the Dative, Ablative, and sometimes the Genitive: as nŏcĕt nēmĭnī he-hurts (is-hurtful-to) nobody, cōntīdĭt auctōrĭtātĕ he trusts to (in) his influence, mĕmĭnĭt tŭī he remembers you.

(2) Those which require an Adjectival Complement or Secondary Predicate referring to their subject to complete their sense. These are Verbs of becoming, appearing, etc. The Predicates agree with the Subject according to Rule I. of § 120, and thus the Verb has the same case after it as before it. Caesăr fĭt cōnsŭl Cæsar is-made consul, nōn lĭcĕt tĭbĭ fĭĕrī cōnsŭlī it is not lawful for you to be-made consul. So also essĕ to be § 111(4).

For the Accusative of Sphere or Extent see § 132. For the Construction of Passive Verbs § 169.

§ 127. Prepositions may take the Accusative or the Ablative: ăd urbem to the-town, ĭn urbĕ in the-town. See §§ 135. 153.

§ 128. Subordinate Conjunctions may take the Indicative or the Subjunctive. Co-ordinate Conjunctions do not affect the construction.

For the construction of Interjections see § 333.

The Cases.

§ 129.Nominative.—The Subject of the sentence is put in the Nominative, as ĕquŭs currĭt the-horse runs. So are all its adjectival Attributes and Predicates, as nēmō cŭpĭt essĕ mĭsĕr no-one desires to-be wretched.

§ 130. Vocative.—The person addressed is put in the Vocative, often with ō, as ō bŏnĕ! good sir!

Accusative.

The chief uses of the Accusative are :

1. Accusative of Direct Object.

2. Accusative of Extent.

3. Accusative of Motion towards something.

4. Accusative as Subject to Infinitive.

§ 131. Accusative of Direct Object.—Transitive Verbs take an Accusative of the direct object of their action: vīdĕo fūrem I see a-thief, hōc rŏgō I-ask this.

The Accusative is also used in Exclamations when a person or thingis the object of a strong feeling, as ō mĭsĕrum hŏmĭnem O the wretched man!

§ 132. Accusative of Extent.—Extent of Space. The Accusative is used of the extent of Space through which anything moves or extends : multă mīlĭă passŭum prōgrēssī sunt they advanced many thousands of paces (i.e. miles).

Accusative of Extent of Time.—The Accusative is used, by a metaphor, of the length of time throughout which an action goes on: bēstiŏlae quaedam ūnum dĭem vīvunt certain little-creatures live (only) one day.

Accusative of Sphere of Action.—The Accusative is also used to show the extent or sphere of an action or state.

(a) A Neuter Adjective or Pronoun: vălērĕ to-have-power, mŭltum vălērĕ to have much power, to be very powerful, hōc fallŏr I-am-mlstaken in-this.

(b) A Noun of same meaning as the Verb, with an Adjective or other defining word: lūdum īnsŏlentem lūdĕrĕ to-play an arrogant game. This is called the Cognate Ace.

§ 133. Accusative of Motion towards a Place.—Only of names of Towns and small Islands; also dŏmum home, rūs to-the-country, fŏrās out-of-doors. Corcȳram nāvĭgāvĭmus we sailed to-Corcyra. With other words a Preposition is required.

For the Accusative of Purpose from Verbal Nouns, see § 194.

§ 134. Accusative with the Infinitive.—The Subject of a Verb in the. Infinitive, if expressed, is put in the Accusative: nūntĭātŭr Gallōs ădessĕ it-is-announced that the-Gauls are-at-hand. See § 205.

§ 135. Accusative with Prepositions.—The Accusative is used after the following Prepositions:

antĕ, ăpŭd, ăd, adversŭs,
cĭs, clam, circum, ŏb, sĕcundum,
pōnĕ, pĕnĕs, prŏpĕ, pĕr,
post, trans, and all in -a, and -ter.
To these, if motion you intend,
sŭb, sŭpĕr, ĭn you should append.

The Prepositions in -ā are circā, cĭtrā, contrā, extrā, infrā, intrā, sŭprā, ultrā. Those in -ĕr are praetĕr, proptĕr, subtĕr, and circĭtĕr. For their meanings see § 296.

The Accusative is sometimes used after Verbs compounded with these Prepositions. See § 305.

§ 136. Double Accusative.—Some Verbs take two Accusatives, one of the person and one of the thing : as hōc tē rŏg{subst:o-}} I ask you this. For a list of them see § 306.

Dative.

§ 137. General Meaning of Dative.—The Dative denotes:

A. The Person Interested in an action.

B. The Use or Purpose which anything serves.

§ 138. A. Dative of Person Interested.—The person whose interests are involved in any action is put in the Dative, generally translated for: bŏnă omnĭă pŏpŭlō Rōmānō prĕcantŭr they pray-for all blessings for the Roman people.

According as the Dative expresses something favourable or unfavourable to a person's interests, it is called the Dătīvŭs commŏdi (Dative of Advantage), or the Dătīvŭs incoramŏdī (Dative of Disadvantage).

Dative of Person Interested in a Statement.—The Person interested in a Statement is also put in the Dative : eccĕ tĭbĭ, m{subst:a-}}nĕ accēpi littĕrās tŭās look you, the-first-thing-in-the- morning I received your letter; quid mĭhĭ Celsŭs ăgit what pray is Celsus doing?

This is called the Ethic Dative, mĭhĭ, tĭbĭ, nōbīs, vōbīs alone are so used.

Dative of Person Judging.—For this Dative see § 310.

Dative of Person Possessing.—Generally with essĕ to be: est mĭhĭ frātĕr there-is a brother for-me, that is, I have a brother.

Dative of Person Concerned in an Action.—With the Gerund and Gerundive, and sometimes Adjectives in -bĭlĭs, and Past Participles: hōc mĭhĭ est mĕtŭendum this is for-me to-be-feared, that is, I have to fear this.

This Dative is often most conveniently translated by, and hence it has been called the Dative of the Agent. But the real Agent is expressed by ā or ăb with the Ablative (§ 149*).

§ 139. Dative of Indirect Object.—The person whose interests are involved in any action is often the Indirect Object of the action. This Dat. is generally translated to.

As we have already seen (§ 115), the sense of the Verb is often incomplete without such an addition.

This Dative is found with :

{a) Transitive Verbs which take an Accusative of the Direct Object : grātĭāsăgĭt mĭhi he gives thanks to me.

(b) Intransitive Verbs and Adjectives : nŏcent ălĭis they are harmful to-others, ămīcŭs tĭbĭ friendly to-you.

The English has only one oblique case, the Objective; and this is used to translate both the Latin Dative and Accusative; thus in I give him it, we must put him in the Dat. in Latin, and it in the Ace. Hence many Verbs which seem to be Transitive when translated into English, are really Intransitive, and take a Dative: pārĕō tĭbĭ I-obey you, lit. I am-obedient to-you.

§ 140. Dative with Verbs compounded with a Preposition.—Most Verbs compounded with a Preposition take a Dative of the Indirect Object. This is to be variously translated in English; ămīcīs dēfŭĭt he-failed (was lacking to) his-friends; căpĭtī subdūxĕrăt ēnsem she-had-removed the-sword from my-head; cōnstăt sĭbĭ he-agrees with-kimself (i.e. he is consistent).

§ 141. B. Dative of Use or Purpose Served.

1. The Dative of Verbals is used, generally as a Complement to Nouns, to express the result aimed at : sīgnum rĕceptŭī the-signal for-retreat.

2. Predicative Dative.—The Dative of Abstract Nouns is used as a Predicate, 'generally with essĕ, to show what function the Subject performs or what result it effects. A Dat. of the Person is generally added : exĭtĭō est ăvĭdum mărĕ nautīs the greedy sea is destructive to sailors, lit. for a destruction, cūrae sunt atquĕ lăbōrī they cause care and toil.

Genitive.

§ 142. The commonest use of the Genitive is to qualify Nouns. It is also used as a complement to Adjectives and Verbs.

§ 143. The Genitive with Nouns.—The Genitive shows that one Noun is connected with or referred to another Noun. The kind of connexion or relation is very various.

Connexion in General.—Quaestĭō săpĭentĭae an inquiry about-wisdom.

Possession.—Caesărĭs hŏrti Cæsar's gardens.

Origin and Cause.—Lăbŏr discendī the toil of learning, sēmĕn bellī the seed of the war (from which the war sprang).

Partition.—The Genitive being used of the whole of which a part is taken: Brĭtannōrum fortissĭmī the-bravest of-the-Britons, nĭhĭl nŏvī no news (nothing of news).

Definition.—The Genitive showing in what a thing consists: hŏnōs cōnsŭlāatūs the office of-consul (lit. of-consulship).

Description.—Always with an Adjective accompanying: rēs māgni lăbōrĭs an affair of-great labour.

§ 144. The Genitive used Predicatively.—Most of the above Genitives can be used as the Predicate of a Noun: hortī sunt Caesăris the gardens are Cæsar's, rēs māgnī lăbōrĭs dūcĭtŭr the-affair is considered one of-great labour.

§ 145.—Genitive of the Object.—When a Genitive depends on a Noun which implies an action, it often denotes the object of the action, and corresponds to the Complement after a Verb § 115. Thus ămŏr ătrĭs the loce of-a-father may mean that someone loves a-father. This is called the "Objective" Genitive, ămŏr pătrĭs, may, however, also mean that a father loves someone, and the Gen. in this case corresponds to the Subject of a Verb. This is called the "Subjective" Genitive.

Subjective and Objective Genitives are often united: hostĭum tĭmŏr Caesărĭs the enemies' fear of Cæsar.

§ 146. Genitive with Verbs.—Certain Verbs, chiefly Transitive, take a Complement in the Genitive.

Genitive of the Charge.—Verbs of Accusing, Convicting, and Acquitting take a Genitive of the Charge: ambĭtūs accūsārĕ to-accuse of-bribery.

Genitive of the Mental Object.—Certain Verbs which denote pity, vexation, shame, disgust take a Genitive of the Object of the Feeling. These are mĭsĕrērī and the Impersonals of § 166 (b): mĭsĕrērĕ tŭōum pity your-friends, pŭdĕt mē frātrĭs I-am-ashamed of-my-brother.

Some Verbs of Remembering, Forgetting, etc., take a Genitive of the thing remembered, etc.; so admŏnērĕ to remind, certiōrem făcĕrĕ to inform: vīvōrum mĕmĭnī I-remember the living, certiōrem mē cōnsĭlī fēcĭt he informed me of his plan.

For the Gen. with intĕrest and rēfert see § 315.

§ 147. Genitive with Adjectives.—Many Adjectives, especially those containing a Verbal Notion, take a Complement in the Genitive. See § 316.

For the so-called "Genitive of Place" see § 154; and for the Genitive of Price see § 156*.

Ablative.

§ 148. The Ablative has a great variety of usages, which may be considered under three heads:—A. Place whence (the Ablative Proper); B. Means or instrument (the Instrumental Ablative); C. Place where (the Locative Ablative).

§ 149. A. Ablative Proper.—Usually to be translated from.

Motion from a Place. Without a Preposition, only names of Towns and small Islands, and rūrĕ, dŏmō: fūgĭt Cŏrinthō he fled from-Corinth, rūrĕ advĕnĭō I arrive from-the-country.

With other words a Preposition must be used ; as, ex Asĭa from Asia.

Origin.—Iŏvĕ prōgnātŭs descended from-Jupiter.

"Ablaltive of the Agent" with ā or ăb.—The Ablative with ăb or ā (lit. from) is used with Passive Verbs of the Person who is the Source of the Action, that is the Agent; laudāmŭr ăb hīs, culpāmŭr ăb illīs we-are-praiscd by these-persons, we-are-blamed by those.

Abl. of Separation.—With Verbs signifying Removing, Depriving, etc., especially when compounded with the Prepositions ăb and dē, ex and sē: pellĕrĕ cāstrīs to drive from-the-camp, armīs spŏlĭārĕ to strip of-his-armour; urbĕ exīrĕ to-go-out of-the-town.

Abl. of Comparison.—After Comparative Adjectives and Adverbs. We "start from" the thing with which comparison is made. This Ablative is translated than ; quid măgĭs est saxō dūrum, quid mollĕŭs undā? what is more hard than stone, what softer than water?

§ 150. B. Instrumental Ablative.—This denotes that by means of which anything is done, and is usually translated by or with.

Ablative of Instrument.—ăprī dentĭbus sē tūtantŭr boars defend themselves with-their-tusks.

Ablative of Cause.—maerŏrĕ cōnsĕnēscēbăt he-was-growing-old with-grief.

Ablative of Cost.—The Ablative is used of the sum for which anything is bought or. sold : praesentī pecūnĭā vēnīrĕ to-be-sold for ready money.

Ablative of Amount of Difference.—The Difference between two unequal things is expressed by the Ablative : sōl multīs partĭbŭs māiŏr est quam lūnă the-sun is many times larger than the-moon.

Ablative of Way or Manner.—Generally with defining adjective: pollĭcĕŏr hōc vōbīs bŏnā fĭdē I promise this to-you in good faith.

Ablative of Quality or Description.—Always with an Adjective or Pronoun: summā virtūtĕ ădŭlēscēns a youth of the highest virtue.

Ablative Absolute.—It denotes actions, etc., which accompany the main action: Chāŏnĭae fŭgĭunt, ăquĭlā vĕnĭentĕ, cŏlumbae the Chaonian doves flee when the eagle comes, or at the coming of the eagle.

This Ablative is so called because it often appears to be independent (absŏlūtŭs set free) of the rest of the sentence. It is better called the Abl. of Attendant Circumstances.

§ 151. C. Locative Ablative.—The Ablative is used to denote several meanings which originally belonged to the Locative.

Place where.—Except in a few phrases such as terrā et mări on land and sea, only found with an epithet or Preposition: mĕdĭō oppĭdō flŭit it flows through the midst of the town.

Sometimes the Place is also the Means: scūtă ŭmĕrīs gestant they carry their shields on their shoulders.

Route.—portā. Collinā urbem intrāvĭt he entered the city by the Colline Gate.

Part or Thing Concerned (sometimes called Ablative of Respect).—capti aurĭbŭs et ŏcŭlīs paralysed (lit. seized) in ears and eyes.

Time.—Time at which anything happens: Īdĭbus Sextīlĭbŭs on the Ides of August.

Time within which: Roscĭus multīs annis Rōmam nōn vēnĭt for many years Roscius did not come to Rome.

§ 152. Ablative with Verbs and Adjectives.

1. With Deponent Verbs.—Six uncompounded Deponent Verbs take the Ablative.

fungŏr, ūtŏr, and frŭŏr,
vescŏr, nītŏr, pŏtiŏr^[9]

The phrases ŏpŭs est, ūsŭs est, there is need of, are often found with the Abl. See § 332.

2. Verbs and Adjectives denoting Want or Fulness take the Abl.: pāne ĕgĕō I-want bread, hŏnōrĕ plēnŭs full of-honour.

3. The following Adjectives also take the Ablative: dīgnŭs worthy (of), indīgnŭs unworthy (of), contentŭs contented (with), and frētŭs relying (on).

§ 153. Ablative with Prepositions.—The following Prepositions take the Ablative:

ăb or a, cum, cōram, dē,
pălam, prŏcŭl, ex or e,
sĭnĕ, sĭmŭl, prōand prae.
'To these if rest at you intend,
sŭb, sŭper, ĭn you should append.

tĕnus up to, is generally constructed with the Ablative, but sometimes with the Gen.

§ 154. Locative.

The Locative denoted the place where. In the time of the Classical Latin it had gone out of use, and its place had been to a great extent taken by other cases, chiefly by the Ablative. It is often wrongly called a Genitive.

It was still used, however, in the following cases:

§ 155. Locative of the Place.—In names of Towns and Small Islands: Rōmae at Rome, Rhŏdī in Rhodes, Karthāgĭnī at Carthage; also hŭmī, terrae on-the-ground, dŏmī at home, rūrū in-the-country, bellī in-war, mīlătĭae in-warfare.

In a metaphorical sense we find ănĭmī, as aeger ănĭmī sick at heart.

§ 156. Locative of the Price.—The Amount at which anything is valued is put in the Locative: parvī sunt fŏrīs armă nĭsĭ est cōnsĭlĭum dŏmi arms are worth-little abroad unless there-is wisdom at-home. For a list of the Locatives so used, see § 326.

A Genitive of Price is found in plūris worth-more, mĭnōris worth less. It is due to the Locative forms in -ī being mistaken for Genitives.

Adjectives.

§ 157. Adjectives without Nouns.—Adjectives are found without Nouns where these can be readily supplied from the context: lēgātōs comprŏhendunt, noxĭōs interfĭcĭŭnt they arrest the- ambassadors, they put-to-death the guilty-ones.

158. Adjectives as Nouns. —Adjectives (and Pronouns) are often used by themselves in the Masculine gender to denote Males or Persons generally, in the Feminine to denote Females, and in the Neuter to denote Things: quĭd mĭnŭs lībĕrō dīgnum? what (thing) is less worthy of a free man? trīstĕ lŭpŭs stăbŭlīs the wolf (is) a-grievous-thing for the sheep-folds.

Several Adjectives are used so often with a particular Noun that the Adjective can stand alone: āgnīnă (cărō) lamb, i.e. lamb's flesh, nātālĭs (dĭēs) birthday, dextră (mănŭs) the right (hand).

§ 159. Adjective for Adverb.—Adjectives are often used in Latin where English has Adverbs. This is always the case where the real reference is to some state or condition of a person or thing: scĭēns hōc fēcī I did this knowingly (I was aware what I did), rem tăcĭtŭs praetĕrīs you pass over the matter silently, i.e., saying nothing about it.

The Adverb, however, must be used if the Manner is referred to: cautē făcĕrĕ to act cautiously, in a cautious manner, tăcĭtē exĕcrārī to curse silently, i.e. not aloud.

Degrees of Comparison.

§ 160. Comparative.—In Comparison of two things the Comparative of Adjective or Adverb is used.

(1) That with which anything is compared is put in the same case as the thing compared, 'quam being used to show the comparison: mĕlĭŏr est certă pāx quam spērată victōrĭă certain peace is better than hoped-for victory.

(2) Instead of quam with a Nominative or Accusative (but no other case), the Ablative of Comparison, § 149, may be used: quid mollĭŭs undā? what (is) softer than water?

Where ambiguity would arise, only quam may be used: Brūtum nōn mĭnŭs ămō quam tū, paenĕ dīxī quam tē I love Brutus no less than you do, I almost said than I do you.

Pronouns.

§ 161. The Genitives of the Personal Pronouns are not used in the sense of Possession, nor in a Subjective sense. In these senses the Possessive Adjective is used instead: tŭă ūnīŭs vŏluptās the pleasure of you only (not tŭī), nostĕr tĭmŏr our fear (the fear we feel) (not nostrī).

In a Partitive sense, and with omnĭum, nostrum, vestrum are used: nēmō̆ nostrum none of-us, not nēmō̆ nostrī.

§ 162. The Neuter of Demonstrative and Relative Pronouns is generally attracted so as to agree with its Subject: hōc ŏpŭs, hīc lăbŏr est this is the-work, this is the- toil (not hōc lăbŏr est).

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THE FINITE VERB.

Persons.

§ 163. Insertion of Pronouns.—The First and Second persons of the Verb do not require the insertion of the personal Pronouns as in English. They are only inserted when emphatic; tū pulsās, ĕgŏ vāpŭlŏ you beat, I am beaten.

The Third person requires the insertion of a Pronoun where it would not be clear to what Noun it referre; Balbŭs uxōrem dūcĭt, ĕă proxĭmō mēnse mŏrĭtŭr 'Balbus marries a-wife, she dies in-the-following month.

If ĕă were not put in, mŏrĭtŭr would refer to Balbŭs, the Nominative of the preceding sentence.

§ 164. Translation of the Persons.—The First Person is often used in the Plural where in English we use the Singular: hunc lĭbrum dē sĕnectūtĕ mīsĭmŭs I-have-sent you this book on old-age. So also the Pronouns: nostrōs vīdistī flentĭs ŏcellōs you-have-seen my eyes when weeping (lit. our eyes).

The exact translation of the Second Person Singular is thou, and of the Second Person Plural ye; and these are used in translating poetry. But in translating prose and verse of a light kind, you is used for both.

The insertion of an Adjective, Noun, or Pronoun referring to the Subject contained in the Verb does not change its person (as in English); illĕ sum quī laudŏr I-am he that is praised.

§ 165. Indefinite Use of the Persons.—An Indefinite Subject to a Verb, one, people, etc., is expressed by—

(a) First Person Plural: quae vŏlŭmŭs lĭbentĕr crēdĭmŭs one readily believes what one wishes.

(b) Third Person Plural, of Verbs of saying, etc.: hōc vulgō crēdunt people believe this generally.

(c) The Passive Voice: rēx dīlĭgĭtŭr people love the king.

{d) Second Person Singular of the Subjunctive: āmentem ilium pŭtēs one would think him a madman.

§ 166. Impersonal Verbs.—Impersonal Verbs are only used in the Third Person Singular of the Active. They comprise:

{a) Verbs denoting natural phenomena, which cannot be assigned to a definite subject; as, plŭĭt it rains, advespĕrāscĭt it draws-towards-evening.

(b) Verbs denoting feelings of the mind, the cause of which is obscure; as, taedĕt expressing weariness or disgust. These Verbs must be translated personally into English; taedĕt mē vītae I am tired of life, lit. it (something, I cannot tell what) tires me of life. See also § 454 (i).

To these may be added:

(c) The Impersonal use of the Third Person Singular Passive to denote the mere performance of an action; as, lūditŭr it-is-played, i.e., playing goes on.

§167. Quasi-Impersonal Verbs.—Numerous other Verbs appear to be Impersonal, and are translated by it in English, but they are either followed by an Infinitive or Dependent clause, which serves as their subject: dĕcĕt tē īgnōscĕre mĭhĭ it becomes you to pardon me, you should pardon me.

For the construction of these Quasi-Impersonal Verbs see § 454 (2).

The Passive Voice.

§ 168. The Passive Voice is a conversion of the Active. He is loved by me and I love him are two ways of saying the same thing.

§ 169. Conversion of Transitive Verbs.—The Direct Object of the Active becomes the Subject of the Passive Verb, and the Subject of the Active Verb is put into the Ablative (of the Agent) with ā or ăb. Thus: Brūtŭs Caesărem interfēcit Brutus killed Cæsar becomes Caesăr ā Brūtō interfectŭs est Cæsar was killed by Brutus.

It is the Nominative and Accusative of the Direct Object only that are changed in the conversion of a sentence to the Passive form. The other Accusatives and Oblique cases remain; illŭd Caesăr tē laedit in that Cæsar hurts you becomes illŭd ā Caesărĕ laedĕrĭs. See, however, § 356*.

§ 170. Conversion of Intransitive Verbs.—These are converted by means of the Third Person Singular or Impersonal Passive: Brūtŭs ĕt Cassĭŭs Caesărī invĭdent Brutus and Cassius envy Ceasar becomes Caseaăr ā Brūtō et Cassiō Caesărī invĭdētŭr it-is-envied Cæsar (envy is felt towards Cæsar) by Brutus and Cassius.

§ 171. Indefinite use of the Passive.—If the Subject of a Transitive Verb is Indefinite, it is not expressed in the Passive: Thălēs săpĭ{subst:e-}}ns appellāatŭs est Thales was called a-sage; hōc crēdĭtŭr this is believed, people believe this.

The Impersonal Passive of Intransitive Verbs is very frequently used where the Subject is Indefinite; ītŭr ĭn antīquam silvam people go into an ancient forest.

§ 172. Passive in a Reflexive Sense.—The Passive is often used, especially in old writers and poets, to denote an action performed by the Subject on itself; exercĕŏr I exercise myself, rĕcrĕŏr I refresh myself.

Many of these are to be translated by an English Intransitive Verb; rumpŏr I burst, pāscŏr I feed, volvŏr I roll.

The same Reflexive meaning may be traced in Deponent Verbs; ĕpŭlŏr I feast myself, piscŏr I get myself fish, I fish. Comp. 307 (end).

Tenses.

§ 173. The Tenses in Principal Sentences.—The general meaning of the Tenses has already been explained, § 57. It is most clearly seen in the leading Verbs of Principal sentences.

The tenses of the leading Verbs in Principal Sentences express time absolutely. The tenses of the Verbs in Dependent Sentences (§§ 224, 225), and of the Infinitive (§ 204), and the Participles (§ 364) generally express time dependent on that of their leading Verb.

§ 174. Tenses which refer to the present or future are called Primary Tenses; those which refer to the past are called Secondary or Historic Tenses.

Primary: Present, Perfect Proper, Future, Future-Perfect.
Secondary: Perfect Aorist, Imperfect, Pluperfect.

The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect, are often called the Completed Tenses, because they necessarily denote an action already finished; as opposed to the Present, Imperfect, and Future, which are called Incomplete Tenses.

§ 175. The following table represents the correspondence of the Latin and English Tenses:—

Primary Tenses.

Pres.	I write or am writing scrībō
Perf.	I have written or have been writing scrīpsī
Fut.	I shall writeor shall be writing scrībam
Fut. Perf.	I shall have written or shall have been writing scrīpserō

Secondary Tenses.

Perf. Aorist.	I wrote scrīpsī
Imperf.	I was writing scrībēbam
Pluperf.	I had written or had been writing scrīps{subst:ebreve}}ram

§ 176. Special Uses of the Tenses.

Besides the general use of the tenses, as explained in § 57, they have the following special developments in Latin.

§ 177. Incomplete Tenses.—I. The Present and Imperfect are used for actions of general or frequent occurrence: prŏbĭtās laudātur ĕt algĕt honesty is praised and freezes, Pausănĭās ĕpŭlābatŭr mōrĕ Persārum Pausanias used-to-banquet in the style of the Persians.

For the Perfect and Pluperfect in Dependent clauses see § 224 (2).

§ 178. II. The same tenses, especially the Imperfect, are also used of an action purposed or attempted, but not carried out : quĭd me terres? why do-you-try-to frighten me? sēdābant tŭmultūs they tried-to-allay the outbreaks.

This use affects the translation of many Verbs. Thus: dĕdi is I gave; but dō, dăam, often mean I offer, I offered.

§ 179. III. They are also used with iam already, and similar Adverbs, of actions which have been going on for some time; and they are then to be translated by English Completed tenses : annum iam audĭō Crătippum I have been already hearing (i.e. attending the lectures of) Cratippus for a year, iamdūdum tĭbĭ adversābăr I had long been opposing you.

§ 180. Completed Tenses denote a sudden action: terră trĕmit, fūgērĕ fĕrae the earth quakes, the wild beasts have fled (flee at once); terră trĕmŭĭt, fūgĕrant fĕrae the earth quaked, the wild beasts at once fled; sī terră trĕmĕt (or trĕmŭĕrĭt), fūgĕrint fĕrae if the earth quakes, the wild beasts will at once flee.

§ 181. Imaginative Uses of the Tenses.—Sometimes, by an effort of the imagination, the speaker transports himself to some point in the Past or the Future, and uses the Tenses which would then be correct.

§ 182. Present for Past.—The Present is often used vividly in speaking of past events; Iŭgurthă vallō moenĭă circumdat, Jugurtha surrounded the-walls with-an-entrenchment.

This use is called the Historic Present. It is regularly found with dum whilst.

§ 183. Present for Future.—The Present is sometimes similarly used in speaking of events in the future, especially in the immediate future: nunc ăd inceptūm rĕdĕō now I will return to my subject.

So frequently with dum until; see § 410*.

The Perfect is sometimes similarly used for the Future Perfect: sī Brūtŭs cōnservātŭs ĕrĭt, vīcĭmus if Brutus is saved, we-shall-have-gained the victory.

§ 184. Past for Present—The. Imperfect and Pluperfect are often used in letters (and messages) where English has the Present and Perfect, the writer of the letter putting himself in the position of the receiver, and using the tense which he would use: Roscĭŭs ōrābat sĭbĭ ădessēs ad Pŭtĕal erās Roscius begs you to attend him to-morrow at the Puteal.

This is often called the Epistolary use of the Imperfect and Pluperfect.

Use of the Moods.

§ 185. The Indicative.—An action which is stated or which is treated as a fact is put in the Indicative: vīvō I am alive, făcĭam cum pŏtĕrō I will do it when I can.

It is not necessary that the action referred to should be a fact; indeed, this is impossible with future actions. It is enough for the speaker to treat it as if it were.

§ 186. The Imperative.—An action commanded is put in the Imperative; as, ăbi go away, ăbītō let-him-go away.

The heavier forms of the Second Person Imperative, as ămātō (sing ămātōtĕ (plur.), give an order less bluntly and directly than the shorter forms, but more authoritatively. They are often used in relation to the future, and are called by some Future Imperatives.

An action forbidden is not put in the Imperative. See § 191.

The Subjunctive.

§ 187. The Subjunctive Mood differs essentially from the Indicative, and its uses belong to four main kinds or types.

If a Verb is put in the Subjunctive, this shows either:

(A) That it denotes something which is regarded as a thought or feeling, not as a fact (Subjunctive of Thought); or

(B) Something which, though it may be a fact, is dependent upon other facts, or cannot be separated from them (Subjunctive of Dependent Fact) ; or

(C) That it denotes something which the writer does not give on his own authority, but only as a statement of others (Subjunctive of Dependent Statement); or; lastly,

(D) That it depends in grammatical construction on an Infinitive or another Subjunctive (Subjunctive of Grammatical Dependence).

§ 188. The Subjunctive in Simple Sentences.—The Subjunctives found in simple sentences all belong to type (A). The Subjunctive expresses either (I) Desire (the Negative is nē), or (II) Imagination or Supposition (the Negative is nōn).

§ 189. I–Subjunctive of Desire.—This is found—

(1) In Wishes or Hopes: mŏrĭăr may I die! ŭtĭnam nē fēlix sit O that he might not be happy!

(2) In Requests or Commands: nē fēcĕrīs hōc pray do not do this; ăbĕăt let him go away; nē ăbĕăt let him not go away; hōc nē făcĭāmŭs let us not do this.

§ 190. II—Subjunctive of Imagination.—hōc vĕlim I could wish this; īnsānum pŭtes you might think him mad or he might be thought mad. See also § 383.

So in the Principal Clause of a Complex sentence: respondĕam sī rŏgēs I should answer if you asked me; respondissem sī rŏgāssēs I should have answered if you had asked me. In both sentences it is implied that I am not asked. See § 239.

For the Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses, see § 217 sqq.

§ 191. Commands and Prohibitions.—The Subjunctive does not express a command as strongly as the Imperative. Hence abĕăt is less peremptory than ăbītō. In Prohibitions the Imperative is not used in Classical prose, nor the Present Subjunctive in the Second person. Do not do this is therefore nē fēcĕrīs hōc or nōlī hōc făcĕrĕ.

For other ways of expressing Commands and Prohibitions, see §385.

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VERBALS.

§ 192. Verbal Nouns.—These include (besides the Infinitive) the Supines and Gerunds, and they take the same construction as the Verb from which they are formed.

§ 193. Supines.—These are the Ace. and Abl. of Verbal Nouns in -ŭs (G. -ūs), the other cases of which are sometimes, but not always, found. Thus from audītŭs hearing we get audītum (Ace), audītū (Abl.).

§ 194. The Supine in -um denotes Purpose, and is used with Verbs which imply Motion: audītum ĕō Cĭcĕrōnem I-go to-hear (I-go a-hearing) Cicero.

This Supine is used with īrī, the Infinitive of ītŭr people go (see § 202), to form a Future Infinitive Passive: dīcĭt sē occīsum īrī he says that he will be killed, lit. that people-are-going to-kill him.

§ 195. The Supine in -ū is used after Adjectives: horrendum audītū fearful to-hear (in the hearing). For more see the Addendum.

§196. Gerunds.—This is the name given to the cases of a Neuter Noun in -dum, corresponding to the English -ing.

The Nominative is only used (in Classical Latin) from Intransitive Verbs, and with the meaning of Obligation: ĕundum est nōbīs there-is going for-us, that is, we must go.

Examples of the other cases are: aptŭs ad pingendum quick at painting (Acc), vĭă nŏcendi hostĭbŭs a-way of-doing-harm to-the-enemy (Gen.), sălūtem hŏmĭnĭbus dandō by-giving safety to-men (Abl.), scrībendō adfuērunt they were-present to-write, i.e. acted as secretaries (Dat.).

When the Verb would govern an Ace, the Gerundive is generally used instead of the Gerund. See § 198.

§ 197.Verbal Adjectives.

Transitive Verbs have:

1. A Present Participle Active, denoting the same time as that of the leading Verb : amāns loving.

2. A Future Participle Active: ămātūrŭs about to-love, denoting time future to that of the leading Verb.

3. A Participle Passive, denoting (generally) time prior to that of the leading Verb: ămātŭs loved.

4. A Gerundive, as ămandŭs.

Intransitive Verbs have only i and 2.

Deponent Verbs, if Transitive, have all four; but the Past Participle of some Verbs is used sometimes in an Active and sometimes in a Passive sense: cŏmĭtātŭs having accompanied or having been accompanied. If they are Intransitive, they have all but the Gerundive.

§ 198. The Gerundive.—The Nominative of the Gerundive, like the Gerund, is used in the sense of obligation: hostēs nōbīs vincendī sunt the enemy are for us to conquer, we must conquer the enemy.

In the other Cases it is used instead of the Gerund when the latter takes a Direct Object in the Ace. The Object and the Gerundive are put in the same gender, number, and case. Thus instead of ĭn adminĭstrandō rem pūblicam in conducting the government (public affairs), we can say in rē pūblĭcā admĭnistrandā.

The Gerund and Gerundive, though used in a Passive sense, take the Dat., not ā with the Abl. of the Agent.

The Infinitive.

§ 199. Forms of the Infinitive.—The Latin Verb has single forms for only the Present Infinitive Active (mŏnērĕ), the Perfect Infinitive Active (mŏnŭissĕ), and the Present Infinitive Passive (mŏnērī).

§ 200. The Perfect Infinitive Passive is formed periphrastically, by using essĕ with the Past Participle: mŏnĭtus essĕ dīcĭtŭr he is said to have been warned; dīcunt Caesărem mŏnĭtum essĕ they say that Ccesar was warned.

The Participle may be also used alone: dīcunt Caesărem mŏnĭtum.

§ 201. For the Future Infinitive Active the Future Participle is used: mŭlĭĕrem crēdĭdĭt mŏrĭtūram he believed that the woman would die.

essĕ is sometimes inserted.

§ 202. The Future Infinitive Passive is expressed:

(1) By using īrī with the Supine in -um. See § 194.

This form cannot be used when the subject of the Infinitive is the same as that of the Finite Verb, as then there is nothing for the Supine lo govern; hence, urbs captum īrī vĭdĕbătur {the city seemed to be going to be captured) is bad Latin.

(2) By using fŏrĕ (Fut. Infin. of essĕ), followed by ŭt, with the Subjunctive Present or Imperfect, according to the Sequence of Tenses (§ 226): dīcit fŏrĕ ŭt urbs căpĭātŭr he says that (it will be that) the city will be captured; dīxĭt fŏrĕ ŭt urbs căpĕrētĕr he said that the city would be captured.

(3) The Infinitive of the Future Perfect Passive is expressed by using fore with the Passive Participle: crēdit urbem căptam fŏrĕ he believes the city will have been captured.

§ 203.Uses of the Infinitive.

The Infinitive has three main usages:

(A) As a Verbal Noun, as Subject or Complement to a Verb: vīvĕrĕ iūcundum est living is pleasant; cŭpĭō dīscĕrĕ I-desire to-learn.

(B) In dependent construction, to represent a Finite Verb: dīcĭt hostēs advĕnīrĕ he says that the enemy are coming, where advĕnīrĕ represents advĕnĭunt.

(C) As a Predicate in place of a Finite Verb: hostēs fŭgĕrĕ, Rōmānī sĕquī the enemy fly, the Romans pursue.

This is called the Historical Infinitive, as it is frequent in historical descriptions.

(D) The Infinitive is also used in Exclamations: mēne inceptō dēsistĕrĕ victam! to think that I should desist from my design baffled!

§ 204. Tenses of the Infinitive.

The Present Infinitive expresses an action of the same time as the leading Verb; as—

dīcō tē errārĕ I say that you are wrong.
dīxīi te errārĕ I said that you were wrong.

The Perfect Infinitive expresses an action of a time prior to the leading Verb; as—

dīcō tē errāssĕ I say that you have been wrong (or were wrong).

dīxī tē errāssĕ I said that you had been wrong.

The Future Infinitive expresses an action of a time future to the leading Verb; as—

dīcō tē errātūrum I say that you will be wrong.
dīxī tē errātūrum I said that you would be wrong.

The Subject of the Infinitive.

§205. 1. If the Subject of the Infinitive is expressed with the Infinitive, it is put into the Accusative : cŭpĭō tē vĕnīrĕ I wish you to come; bŏvem lŏquī mōnstrum est it is a irodigy that an ox should speak.

The Historical Infinitive is of course an exception, as it is equivalent to a Finite Verb.

Any Adjectival Complements referring to the Subject of the Infinitive agree with it in the Ace.: cŭpĭō tē incŏlŭmem ăbīrĕ I wish you to go away unharmed.

For the omission of the Subject when Indefinite, see 373.

2. If the Subject is not expressed with the Infinitive, an Adjectival Complement is still often introduced, agreeing with the word from which the Subject is to be supplied; cŭpĭō ăbīrĕ incŏlŭmĭs I wish to go away unharmed; lĭcĕt mĭhĭ incŏlŭmī ăbīrĕ I am permitted to go away unharmed.

§ 206. Infinitive in Dependent Statement.

After Verbs and phrases of saying, thinking, and feeling, the Infinitive with the Ace. is used instead of a Dependent clause: nūntĭăt Caesărem rĕdĭissĕ he reports that Cæsar has returned; sēnsī prŏcellara advĕnīrĕ I perceived a storm was approaching; sŭēs vŏlārĕ incrēdĭbĭlĕ est it is incredible that pigs should fly.

For the Nom. in the Personal Passive Construction, dīcŏr essĕ fēllx it is said that I am fortunate, see § 376.

Negatives.

§ 207. nōn is used—

In negativing single words or phrases: et sĭt hŭmus cĭnĕrī nōn ŏnĕrōsă tŭō and let the-earth be not-burdensome to your ashes.

In negative Statements and Questions: nōn respondet he does not answer; nō respondĕăt? would he not answer?

haud is used with Adjectives and Adverbs : as haud mălĕ not badly. Also with scĭo as in the phrase haud scĭo ăn, with Subj. I rather think.

§ 208. nē is used—

In Requests: nē respondĕris do not answer.

So also when we are requested to suppose something. See § 382.

In Wishes: nē sīs fēlix! may you not be happy!

§ 209. nĕc, nĕquĕ are used to connect single Words, Statements and Questions: nĕc săpĭt nĕc mĕmĭnĭt he neither understands nor remembers.

neu, nēvĕ are used to connect Requests and Wishes : nē dīxĕrīs hōc nēvĕ pŭtāvĕrīs do not say this, nor think it.

Questions.

§ 210. Questions may be Simple^ Alternative, or Particular.

A Simple Question asks whether something is {or is not) the case: vīvĭt Caesar? is Casar alive? nōn vīvĭt Caesăr? is Cæsar not alive?

The Interrogative Particles, -nĕ (always appended to some word), nōnnĕ, num, are very often used in asking Simple questions.

-nĕ implies nothing as to the nature of the answer expected, audīsnĕ? do you hear?

nēnnĕ expects the answer Yes. nōnnĕ audīs? don't you hear?

num, expects the answer No. num audīs? you don't hear do you?

§ 211. An Alternative Question asks which of two statements is correct.

An Interrogative Particle is required with the second statement, and most often inserted with the first statement as well, ŭtrum or -nĕ is used in the first statement, ăn (sometimes annĕ) is used with the second statement ŭtrum mē nōstī ăn īgnōrās? do you know or not know me?

Or not? is expressed by annōn (sometimes necne), crēdĭs mĭhĭ annōn? do you believe me or not?

§ 212. Particular Questions ask for further information about something or other: quĭs ĕs? who are you? cūr rŏgās? why do you ask?

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE.

§ 213. Principal and Dependent Clauses.—Complex sentences consist of a Principal clause and one or more Dependent clauses. The Complex Sentence may be regarded as a Simple Sentence modified by putting clauses in the place of single words.

The Dependent clauses are called Substantival, Adjectival, or Adverbial, according as the word which corresponds to them is a Substantive (Noun), Adjective, or Adverb.

The following are examples of the three kinds :

Substantival clause: quī rēgēs sunt cŏluntŭr those who are kings are courted.

Simple sentence: rēgēs cŏluntŭr kings are courted.

Adjectival clause: lŏcŭs quem sŭprā dixi hic est

this is the place which I mentioned above.

Simple sentence: lŏcŭs sŭprā dictus hīc est this is the above mentioned place.

Adverbial clause: vēnĭt ŭt prīmum illŭxĭt he came as soon as it was light.

Simple sentence: vēnĭt mānĕ he came in-the-early-morning.

The Dependent Clauses of a Complex Sentence are often called Dependent Sentences; and this word will also be employed in this Grammar.

§ 214. Substantival Clauses.—Substantival clauses or sentences are of five kinds:

(1) Sentences introduced by a Relative Pronoun : quī rēgēs sunt, cŏluntŭr those who are kings are courted.

(2) Sentences introduced by quŏd, meaning the fact that: quŏd spirŏ tŭum est the-f act-that I breathe {my breathing) is due-to-you.

(3) Dependent Questions: quĭd fŭtūrum sĭt rŏgō: I ask what is going-to-happen.

(4) Some sentences introduced by ŭt and nē as Objects of Verbs of entreating, commanding, etc., and as Subjects to est, accĭdĭt, etc.: pĕtō ā tē ŭt ăbĕās (nē ăbĕās) I ask you to go away (not to go away).^[10]

(5) Sentences introduced by nē, etc., expressing the object of a Verb of fearing: tĭmĕo nē mŏrĭăr I am afraid that I shall die.

English Substantival Sentences after Verbs of saying, etc., are expressed in Latin by the Inf. (§ 206).

§ 215. Adjectival Clauses.—These are always introduced by a Relative, which defines some Noun in the Principal Clause: lōcŭs quem dēlēgi, ŭbŭ cōnstĭtī the place which I chose (and) where I stood.

|§216. Adverbial Clauses—These qualify Verbs or Adjectives in the Principal Clause, and are introduced by a Conjunction. See § 102.

They are of the following kinds:—

(1) Local sentences, showing the Place where, whence, whither: ŭbĭ, quā, quō, undē.

(2) Temporal sentences, showing the Time when, during, which, until, after, before, etc. : cum, ŭt when, dum, postquam, etc.

(3) Modal sentences, showing the Manner in which : ŭt as, quăsĭ as if, etc.

(4) Causal sentences, showing the Cause, because, since: quŏd because, quĭă, etc.

(5) Consecutive sentences, showing the Consequence or Result : ŭt so that, etc.

(6) Final sentences, showing the End (Lat. fīnīs) or Purpose: ŭt in order that, etc.

(7) Conditional sentences, showing the Condition, if: sī, etc.

(8) Concessive sentences, making a Concession or Assumption, granting that, supposing that, although : quamquam, etsī, ŭt although, etc.

Moods in Dependent Sentences.

§ 217. The only moods used in Dependent sentences are the Indicative and the Subjunctive.

When the Subjunctive would be required if the sentence were a Principal one, the Subjunctive must, of course, be used if it is a Dependent one.

If the Indicative would be used if the sentence were a Principal one, the Indicative is retained in a Dependent sentence or changed into the Subjunctive, 'according to the four principles of § 187.

The Mood used often depends on the original meaning of the Conjunction which is used. Thus quamobrem since (lit. on account of which thing) of itself expresses Cause, and so the Subjunctive is not required with it. On the other hand, cum properly means when, and hence, when it is used for since, the idea of Cause has to be expressed by the Subjunctive.

§ 218. Relative Sentences.—In Substantival and Adjectival sentences introduced by a Relative (quī, quālĭs, of which kind, quantŭs how great, etc., quod, the fact that, etc.), the Indicative is used if the Verb states something as a simple independent fact: mĭttĭt ĕum quī vēră nūntĭăt he sends the man who brings true tidings.

But, frstly, if there is any accessory idea of Purpose, Cause, etc., the Subjunctive is required (according to (B), § 187): mīttĭt ĕum quī vēră nūntĭĕt he sends a man who is to bring (or to bring) true tidings.

Secondly, the Subjunctive is required if what is stated is stated as the saying or thought of somebody (according to (C), § 187): dīcĭt ĕt crēdĭt sē ĕum mīttĕrĕ quī vēră nūntĭĕt he says and believes that he sends a man who brings true tidings.

Thirdly, the Subjunctive is usually required (according to (D), § 187) if the Verb which gives the statement depends in construction on an Infinitive or Subjunctive; cūrō ŭt ĕum mīttăt quī vēră nūntĭĕt I-take-care that he sends the-man who brings true tidings.

§ 219. Local, Temporal, and Modal Sentences.—These have the Indicative or the Subjunctive on the same principles as Relative sentences.

§ 220. Causal Sentences. — These have the Indicative if they simply give the cause or reason; but the Subjunctive if that is required by the principles (C) or (D).

Cum since, which is properly a Temporal Conjunction, takes the Subjunctive.

§ 221. Consecutive and Final Sentences.— These always take the Subjunctive: effēcĭt ŭt urbs căpĕrētŭr he brought about that the town was taken; ēst ŭt vīvăt he eats to live.

The student must be careful not to confuse Consecutive and Final Sentences. In he kept me so long that I missed my train we have a Consecutive sentence, showing the effect actually produced by his keeping me. In he kept me so long that I might miss my train we have a Final sentence, showing the effect which he intended to produce by his keeping me. Consecutive sentences therefore must express facts, but Final sentences need not do so.

§ 222. Concessive Sentences. — In these the Indicative or the Subjunctive is used according to the Conjunction employed: quamvīs, lĭcĕt, ŭt, take the Subjunctive; quamquam the Indicative; etsī follows the construction of sī if, with which it is compounded.

§ 223. Conditional Sentences.— These follow their Principal sentences in having the Indicative if the Conditional statement is treated as if it were a fact, the Subjunctive if it is treated as a mere imagination. (See §§239 sqq.)

Tenses in Dependent Sentences.

§ 224. Tenses of the Indicative.— The time of the Verb in a Dependent Clause is generally dependent on that of the Principal Clause, and hence care must be taken to use the proper Tense in the Dependent Clause. Latin is much more exact in this respect than English. Thus:

(1) Latin uses a Future in the Dependent Clause if the Principal Clause is Future, not a Present, as English: respondēbō cum pŏtĕrō I will answer when I am able.

(2) Latin uses a Completed tense if the action in the Dependent Clause is finished before the action in the Principal Clause, not an Incomplete one, as English: cum vēnĕrō, tē vīsam when I come, I will visit you.

For the same reason Latin uses the Perfect and Pluperfect in Dependent sentences, of General or Repeated occurrences: quōcumquĕ aspexistī, tŭae tĭbĭ occurrunt iniūrĭae wherever you look, your offences meet you, cum rŏsam vīdĕrăt, tum incĭpĕrĕ vēr arbĭtrābātŭr when (whenever) he saw a rose, then he thought spring was beginning.

(3) Latin uses the Perfect Aorist after postquam and other Temporal Conjunctions, if one action is simply marked as that after or before which some other action occurs, while English often uses the Pluperfect postquam cēnāvĭmŭs, Attĭcŭs advēnĭt after we had dined, Atticus came.

The Latin Pluperfect would have its proper force: postquam cē nāvĕrāmŭs after we had finished dinner.

§ 225. Tenses of the Subjunctive.—The tense of a Verb in the Subjunctive in a Dependent Sentence is determined by the following considerations:

(A) The Tense of the Verb in the Principal sentence to which it is referred, which usually determines whether it is to be Primary or Secondary. This is called the Sequence of Tenses. See below.

(B) The nature of the action which it expresses. This determines whether it is to be Incomplete or Completed. § 231.

(C) There being no proper Future or Future Perfect of the Subjunctive, their place is generally taken by the Present and Perfect Subjunctive. See, however, § 231.

In connexion with a Secondary tense the Subjunctive Future and Future Perfect are represented by an Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive respectively, according to (A).

§ 226. The Sequence of Tenses.—Unless the sense forbids, Primary Tenses in Principal clauses are followed by Primary Tenses in Dependent clauses, and Secondary by Secondary. Thus

ōrăt	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	tē ŭt vĕnĭās	He prays	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	you to come
ōrabĭt			He will pray
ōrāvĕrĭt			He will have prayed
ōrāvĭt	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	tē ŭt vĕnĭrēs	He prayed	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	you to come
ōrābăt			He was praying
ōrāvērăt			He had prayed

§227. Primary tenses are put after the Present, Future, Future Perfect, Indicative and Subjunctive, and the Imperative (§ 386).

§ 228. Secondary tenses are put after the Imperfect, Pluperfect, Perfect Aorist, Indicative and Subjunctive, and the Perfect Infinitive (§ 387.)

§ 229. Primary or Secondary tenses may be put after the Perfect Proper, Indicative and Subjunctive, and the Historical Present^[11] (§ 389).

§ 230. The Present and Future Infinitive, the Participles, and other Verbal Adjectives and Nouns, do not affect the Sequence of Tenses. If a Verb depends on them, it is put in the tense required by the leading Verb (§ 390).

§ 231. Incomplete and Completed Tenses of the Subjunctive.—If an action is marked as finished, a Completed tense must be used.

vĕrĕŏr nē fūgĕrĭt	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	I fear he has run away, or I fear he ran away.
vĕrēbăr nē fūgissĕt		I feared he had run away.
vĕrĕŏr nē fŭgĕrĭt		I fear he will have run away.

If it is not marked as finished, an Incomplete tense must be used.

vĕrĕŏr nē fŭgĭăt	I fear he is running away.
vĕrēbăr nē fŭgĕrĕt	I feared he was running away.
vĕrĕŏr nē fŭgĭăt	I fear he will run away .

§ 232. Periphrastic Future Subjunctive.—The Future Participle Active with sim is used in Dependent sentences of actions which are future to the time of the Principal sentence:

rŏgō	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	quĭd factūrŭs sīs	I shall ask	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	what you will do
rŏgābō,			I shall ask
rŏgāvĕrō			I shall have asked

After Secondary tenses essem is used:

roāvī	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	quĭd factūrŭs essēs	I asked	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	what you would do
rŏgābam			I had asked
rŏgāvĕram			I was asking

This form is used to prevent ambiguity: rŏgō quĭd facĭās would mean I ask what you' ARE DOING, rŏgāvī quĭd făcĕrēs I asked what you WERE DOING.

Negatives in Dependent Sentences.

§ 233. The Negative in Dependent Sentences is non. But nē is used- (a) In Final sentences; dandă ŏpĕră est ŭt ĕă rēs aut prōsĭt aut nē obsĭt rĕi pūblĭcae we must take care that that circumstance may either be of advantage or not of disadvantage to the state; praefīnīstī quō nē plūrĭs ĕmĕren you prescribed (a sum) for more than which I should not buy (it).

(b) After dum, dum mŏdŏ, mŏdŏ provided that; dum nē tĭbĭ vĭdĕăr, nōn lăbōrō I am not distressed, provided I do not seem to you (to be so).

§ 234. The Conditional Statement.

When we state anything conditionally, we assert that the occurrence of one event is consequent on the occurrence of another event. We say that something happens if something else happens, that it would have happened if something else had happened, or the like.

A Conditional Statement thus consists of two clauses, the one stating the Condition and called the Protasis, and the other stating the Consequence and called the Apodosis. Thus in sī bŏnŭs est, fēlīx est if he is good, he is happy, sī bŏnŭs est is the Protasis, and feēlīx est is the Apodosis.

The Protasis is most commonly introduced by sī if. But see § 416. nisi except takes the same constructions as sī.

§ 235. The Three Types of Conditional Statements.—There are three types of Conditional Statements, according to the forms of the Verb which are used in them:

(A) In which the Indicative is used.

(B) In which Primary tenses of the Subjunctive are used.

(C) In which Secondary tenses of the Subjunctive are used.

§ 236. The Protasis and Apodosis must not consist of forms which are inconsistent with each other. Thus if the Indicative is used in the Protasis, the Indicative must be used in the Apodosis, and vice versa. If Primary or Secondary tenses of the Subjunctive are used in the Protasis, Primary or Secondary tenses of the Subjunctive must be used in the Apodosis.

§ 237. (A)—Indicative in Conditional Statements.—If we use the Indicative in a Conditional Statement, we treat the events as if they were facts. We do not concern ourselves with the question as to whether they do actually occur or not.

The Indicative never implies that the events do occur. This would be at variance with the nature of the Conditional Statement; sī bŏnŭs est, fēlīx est does not mean either that he IS good or that he IS happy, but only that he is happy IF he is good.

§ 238. Any Tense of the Indicative may be used in either Protasis or Apodosis if it gives an intelligible sense:

si iŭbēs, ībō If you are ordering me (now), I will go;
si iŭbēbīs, ībō If you order me (in the future), I will go;
si Athēnīs ĕrăt, Cŏrinthum vĕnĭĕt If he was at Athens, he will come to Corinth;
si peccāvī, paenĭtĕt If I have done wrong, I am sorry.

§ 239. Subjunctive in Conditional Statements.—If we use the Subjunctive in a Conditional Statement, we treat the events as if they were mere imaginations, and we imply that they do not occur.

Such imaginary suppositions are expressed by a different set of tenses according as they relate (B) to the Future or (C) to the Present and Past.

§ 240. (B)—Primary Tenses of the Subjunctive.—These express imaginary suppositions relating to the Future. In these we do not expect the event to occur, though, of course, as it is in the future, it may occur notwithstanding.

sī interrŏgēs, respondĕam If you were to ask me, I should answer;
sī peccāvĕrīs, paenĭtĕăt If you should do wrong (should have done wrong), you zvould be sorry.

§ 241. (C)—Secondary Tenses of the Subjunctive.—These express imaginary suppositions relating to (a) the Present or (b) the Past. Such suppositions are known to be contrary to the fact, and the events which they suppose are known not to be occurring or not to have occurred.

Conditional statements of this kind always implicitly deny something. Thus in sī hīc essēs, ălĭtĕr sentīrēs If you were here, you would think differently, we implicitly deny that you are here. We imply hīc nōn ĕs you are not here.

§ 242. (a) Imaginary Suppositions relating to the Present Time.—Here the Imperfect Subjunctive corresponds to a Present Indicative of the Implied Statement, and the Pluperfect Subjunctive to a Perfect Indicative.

Conditional Statement.	Implied Statement.
Imperfect.	Present.
sī vīvĕrĕt, regnāret	nōn vīvĭt
If he were living, he would be	He is not living.
Pluperfect.	Perfect.
sī vīxissĕt, rēgnāssĕt	nōn vīxĭt
If he had lived (continued alive), he would have reigned.	He has not lived,

The Imperfect and Pluperfect can be combined in the same sentence, each tense carrying its proper meaning : sī vīixissĕt, rēgnārĕt If he had continued alive (to the present day), he would (now) be reigning.

§ 243. (b) Imaginary Suppositions relating to Past Time.—Here the Imperfect Subjunctive corresponds to an Imperfect Indicative in the implied statement, and the Pluperfect Subjunctive to a Perfect-Aorist or Pluperfect Indicative.

Conditional Statement.	Implied Statement.
Imperfect.	Imperfect
sī vīvĕrĕt, rēgnārēt	nōn vīvēbāt
If he had been living (then), he would have been reigning.	He was not living.
Pluperfect.	Perfect-Aorist.
sī vīxissĕt, rēgnāssĕt	nōn vīxĭt
If he had lived (then), he would have reigned.	He did not reign.

The difference of meaning in the same tense when used in sentences of the types (a) and (b) must be carefully observed:

Imperfect.

(a) admīrārērĭs Caesărem sī hŏdĭē vīvĕrĕt You would admire Cæsar if he were alive to-day.

(b) admīrārērĭs Caesārem sī illō tempŏrĕ vīvĕrēs You would have admired (been admiring) Cæsar if you had been living then.

Pluperfect.

(a) sī tē hŏdĭē culpāssem, mălĕ fēcissem If I had found fault with you to-day, I should have done wrong.

(b) sī Cĭcĕrō Caesărem culpāsset, mălĕ fēcisset If Cicero had found fault with Cæsar, he would have done wrong.

§ 244. Translation of Conditional Statements.—The forms of the English and Latin Conditional Statements by no means correspond to each other, and consequently the ordinary English translations of the Conditional Statement do not properly represent the Latin. The following differences in idiom should be carefully noticed:

(A) Indicative:

sī peccābō, fătēbŏr	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	If I do wrong, I will own it.
sī peccāvărō, fătēbăr

(B) Subjunctive, Primary tenses:

sī peccem, fătĕăr	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	If I did wrong, I should own it.
sī peccāvĕrim, fătĕăr

(C) Subjunctive, Secondary tenses:

Impferfect (referring to the present)	sī peccārem, fătērer	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	If I did wrong, I should own it
Imperfect (referring to the past)	sī peccārem, fătērer	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	If I had done wrong,I should have owned it
Pluperfect:	sī peccāssem, fassŭs essem

Principles of Indirect Quotation.

§ 245. In Indirect or Oblique Quotation, what has been said, is not quoted in the words of the speaker, but in construction after a Verb of Saying, of Questioning, or of Requesting.

The Indicative and Imperative are not used in Indirect Quotation.

There are three kinds of Indirect Quotation: Indirect Statement, Indirect Question, and Indirect Request.

§ 246. Indirect Statements.—These are made in the Infinitive with the Accusative.

Clōdĭŭs ăbĭīt Clodius has departed becomes in the Indirect Statement, dīcĭt Clōdĭum ăbīsse he says that Clodius has departed. In Negative Statements nĕgō is generally used instead of dīcō .... nōn; Clōdĭus nōn ăbībĭt Clodius will not depart becomes nĕgăt Clōdĭum ăbĭtūrum he says Clodius will not depart.

Caution.—The Latin quŏd is never used to translate the English that in Indirect Statements.

§ 247. Indirect Questions.—Direct Questions are Simple, Alternative, or Particular (§ 210).

When Simple Questions are made Indirect, an Interrogative Particle (-nĕ or num) must be inserted. Direct: ăbĭīt (or ăbĭītnĕ) Clōdĭŭs? has Clodius departed? Indirect: quaerĭt Clōdĭusnĕ (or num Clōdĭŭs) ăbĭĕrĭt? he asks if Clodius has departed?

Alternative and Particular Questions are made Indirect simply by the change of the Verb into the Subjunctive. Direct: mănetnĕ Clōdĭŭs ăn ăbĕīt? is Clodiiis staying or has he departed? Indirect: quaerĭt mănĕatnĕ Clōdĭŭs ăn ăbĭĕrĭt? he asks whether Clodius is staying or has departed? Direct: quĭs est Clōdĭŭs? cūr ăbĭīt? who is Clodius? Why has he departed? Indirect: quaerit quĭs sit Clōdĭŭs, cūr ăbĭĕrĭt ?

§ 248. Indirect Requests.—Requests are put indirectly in the Infinitive with the Accusative after iŭbĕŏ, but in the Subjunctive with ŭt after other Verbs. Clōdī, ăbī depart, Clodius becomes, iŭbĕt Clōdĭum ăbīre or impĕrăt Clōdĭō ŭt ăbĕăt he orders Clodius to depart.

So Negative Requests (Prohibitions) are put in the Infinitive with the Accusative after vĕtō {forbid), but in the Subjunctive with nē or 'ŭt . . nē after other Verbs, nē ăbĭĕrīs, Clōdi do not depart, Clodius, becomes vĕtăt Clōdĭum ăbīrĕ or impĕrăt Clōdĭō nē ăbĕăt he orders Clodius not to depart.

§ 249. Dependent Sentences in Indirect Quotation.—The Verbs of all Dependent Sentences in Indirect Quotation must be in the Subjunctive according to (C) § 187. Clōdĭŭs ăbĭīt ŭbĭ rem cōgnōvĭt Clodius departed when he heard of the occurrence, becomes dīcīt Clōdĭum ăbĭissĕ ŭbĭ rem cognōvĕrĭt.

§ 250. Tenses in Indirect Quotation.—For the tenses of the Infinitive see § 204. The tenses of the Subjunctive generally follow the rules of Sequence as laid down in § 226. Thus, after a Secondary tense, the Primary tenses of the Direct Quotation are changed to Secondary; the Present and Future to the Imperfect, the Perfect and Future Perfect or the Pluperfect. Clōdĭŭs ăbĭīt ŭbĭ rem cōgnōvĭt, becomes after dīxĭt he said, dīxĭt Clōdĭum ăbĭissĕ ŭbĭ rem cōgnōvissĕt.

After a Primary tense, however, the Secondary tenses to the Direct Quotation remain unchanged: Clōdĭŭs īrāscēbātŭr quŏd falsă allātă ĕrant Clodius was angry because false tidings had been brought to him, is in the Indirect Quotation dīcĭt Clōdĭum irāscī quŏd falsă allātă essent.

In immediate construction after a Present, an Imperfect or Perfect Aorist is generally given by a Perfect Subjunctive : laudăt Afrĭcānum Pănaetĭŭs quod fŭĕrĭt abstĭnēns Panaetius praises Africanus because he was moderate.

1. See also. § 202.
2. ' S. 1 wanting.
3. See § 447*.
4. ăĭt, inquĭt are also used as Perfects.
5. Serving in place of a Note of Interrogation.
6. Not quum.
7. Better than qŭotĭēs, tŏtĭēs.
8. Also called Concord.
9. Discharge (a duty), use, get the benefit of. Feed on, lean on, get possession of.
10. For the sentences in (4) see §§ 396, 397, 454 (2).
11. Including the Historical Infinitive.