The New Latin Primer/Part 2

by John Percival Postgate

Part II.

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PRONUNCIATION AND SPELLING.

§ 251. In pronouncing Latin we must remember that in it, unlike English,
(1) each letter has a sound,
(2) no letter has more than one sound.

The few exceptions to this rule are given below.

§ 252. Vowels.—All the Latin vowels are found in English except long E, long O, and Y.

Lat. ē is the French é as in état. The nearest English sound—that in state, stay, etc.—is a diphthong.

Lat. ō is the French o or au, as in chose, chaud. The nearest English sound—that in note, know, etc.—is a diphthong.

Lat. y is the French u in lune, or German ü in grün. It is made by putting the lips in the position for Lat. u (oo), and then pronouncing Lat. i (ee).^[1]

The vowels must be carefully pronounced at the end of words and before r. The ordinary English pronunciation reduces final -ă, -ar, -er, -ir, -ur all to the same sound, the obscure vowel sound which is heard in panorama.

Final -ĕ is not to be pronounced like '-y (as in lady), but like ĕ in other positions. Thus the vowels in rĕgĕrĕ testĭs and rĕgĕrĕt estĭs are sounded in precisely the same way.

§ 253. Diphthongs.—These are best learned by first pronouncing the vowels which compose them separately, and then running them together. Thus: AE as a(h)—é, AU as a(h)—oo, OE as o-é, UI as oo—ee, and so forth.

EI is the Eng. ey as in grey. The nearest sounds in English to the other diphthongs are: to AE, ai in Isaiah (pronounced broadly and nearly as eye); to AU, ou in house (pronounced broadly); to OE, oi in boil.

To EU and UI there is nothing nearer than yoo and wee, which consist of a consonant followed by a vowel.

§ 254. Consonants.—R is to be rolled or trilled as in French, more strongly than in Eng. herring. Special attention is required when it is followed by a consonant, and when it stands at the end of a word. Both the r and the preceding vowel must be pronounced distinctly.

CH, TH, PH, are to be pronounced as k, t, p, followed by h as ink-horn, cat-head, tap-house, or if this is found too difficult, they may be pronounced as k, t, p simply.

N (& M) when standing before 'c, g, q, is to be pronounced as ng in sing.

CI, TI are to be pronounced as kee, tee, not as shie.

In pronouncing doubled consonants, each should be given distinctly. Thus pennīs should be pronounced pen-neece like pen(k)nife, vellĕt as well-let, vittīs as wit-teece, like coat-tails.

Thus only can we distinguish mannŭs a nag from manŭs a hand, mollis soft from molis you grind.

§ 255. Quantity.—The quantity of vowels must always be most carefully given. Two faults are to be specially avoided:

(1) Avoid Shortening of Unaccented long vowels. Thus pronounce the Dative Singular of fēlix happy as fē-lī-cī, not fĕlīcĭ; pronounce the Dative Plural of mŏlă a mill as mŏ-līs, not as mŏlĭs you grind.

(2) Avoid Lengthening of Accented short vowels. Pronounce cĭ-bŭs not sigh-bus, să-crō not sake-row, scĭ-ŏ not sigh-o.

A vowel before two consonants is generally to be pronounced short as in ĕstis you are; but sometimes long as fēstus festal. A vowel is always long before ns, nf and gn; also before x, ct when they come from gs, gt, and before ps, pt, when they come from bs, bt; as, rēxi, rēctus; scrīpsī, scrīptus.

Final vowels and final -m preceded by a vowel, were very slightly pronounced if the next word began with a vowel or h. In this position they are said to be "cut off," and are not counted in verse. Thus iliā undā is scanned as if ill' undā, māgnum hŏmĭnem as if māgn' hŏmĭnem.

Examples of Latin Pronunciation.

§ 256. In the following illustrations the nearest English representatives of the Latin sounds are chosen. If these do not represent the Latin sounds exactly, this is shown by italics, e.g., pēs pace. If a Latin letter is to be pronounced differently from the English letter, it is printed thick, thus vĭr wĭr. In such cases the exact pronunciation is to be ascertained from the foregoing rules.

Table of Representation.

Ă ah	Ĭ i or e͝e.	U o͝o
Ā ah	Ī ee	Ū oo
Ĕ e	O o	Y ü
Ē eh, ai, or a	Ō ō,oe,oa

AE ae

OE oi

AU ou

EI ey

EU ĕ-o͝o

UI o͝o-e͝e

C k

N or M (before C, G, Q) ng

S s or c

I(J) y

V w

R r

CH, TH, PH k'h, t'h, p'h

X ks

Z dz

BS, BT ps, pt

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pēs cĭtŭs	mī pătĕr	exercĭtŭī	tŭō
pace kito͝os	mee păhter	eks-er-kit-o͝o-ee	to͝o-ō

incŭs ill(a) ingēns	cŭr hōc nōn vīs?
ing-kooce ill' ing-gaince	koor hoak noan weece?

eccĕ	tĭbī	mōns	altus!
ekke	tibee	moance	ăhl-toos!

trăhps măgnă	mēn(ĕ) exīrĕ iŭbēs?	vĕr săcrum
trăhps mahg-nĭh	main ekseere yo͝obase?	wair săh-kro͝om

vīvĭtŭr	hōc pāctō	saepĕ caepĕ	cēpī	coepī
wee-wit-o͝or	hoak pahk-toe	saepe kaepe	keh-pee	koi-pee

prōic(e) ŏryzam	hīc annŭs	haec anŭs
prō-yik' orüdzăhm	heek ăhn-no͝os	haek ăh-no͝os

res paucae	ĕs quĭ(ă) ēs	ei mĭhĭ!
race pow-kae	ess quee' ace	ey me͝ehe͝e!

īnfēnsō Phoebō	numqu(am) absīs
een-fain-sō p'hoi-bo[2]	no͝ong-qu' ăhp-seece

cui bŏnō?	Bacchī thyrsŭs	ceu scy̆phŭs
koo-ee[3]bŏn-ō	Băhk-k'hee t'hür-soos'[4]	kĕ-o͝o sküp'hoos[5]

Exercises in Quantity.

Pronounce in the same time as farce: fās, mās, cōs, iūs, sāl, sōl, īs you go, sīc, sīn.

Pronounce in the same time as penknife: pennīs, vittās, illōs, pestēs, istīc.

Pronounce in the same time as quinine: măalōs, mănūs, pĕdēs, trăhō, rŭēns, hŏnōs, dĕōs.

Pronounce in the same time as big black dog: fēlīcēs, fāmōsōs, āctūrīs, turbārī, turbāssent.

§ 257. Roman Names for the Letters.—These were A ah, B beh, C keh, D deh, E eh, F ef, G geh, H hah, I (J) ee, K kah, L el, M em, N en, O oh, P peh, Q coo, R er, S ess, T teh, U (V) 00, X ix, Y Ypsilon, Z Zeta.

§ 258. Latin Spelling.—As explained above, Latin words are generally spelled as they are pronounced; but a few words, especially Compounds and Derivatives, retain the spelling which shows their derivation most clearly; e.g., absum, pbtulī, pronounced as if apsum, optulī. Sometimes the spelling varies as in adspiciō, exspectō, pronounced and often spelled aspiciō, expectō; quamquam, pronounced and sometimes written quanquam, etc.

Sometimes, again, one or more separate words are pronounced as if they were one word. In this case they are sometimes written as one word and sometimes as separate words. Thus; quamobrem or quam ob rem, sīquis or sī quis, vērum tămen or vēruntămen.

In other cases, where variation of spelling occurs, one spelling has generally more authority than another. The following list gives the spelling of the best Latin authors in the most important words, exclusive of those compounded with Prepositions, for which see § 296.

§ 259. LIST OF CORRECT SPELLINGS.

It will be seen that most of the spellings in the following list relate to certain points ; e.g., (1) writing ae for oe or e as caelum, not coelum, or vice versa; (2) writing a letter twice instead of once as damma deer, not dāma, or vice versa; (3) insertion or omission of h as raeds, not rheda; hŏlus, not ŏlus; (4) ci for ti or vice versa.

Italics show correct, and square brackets [ ] incorrect spellings.

a[h]!
abiciō^[6]
adulescēns^[7]
aequipierō
āl[l]ium
[h]allūcinor
ānulus ring
ar[c]tus, etc.
autumnus
bāca berry
bacc[h]ar
bēl[l]ua
brac[c]ae
bracchuim
caelebs^[8]
caelum
caenum^[8]
caerimōnia^[9]
caespes^[9]
Camēna^[8]
Caurus
cēna^[8]
clāt[h]ri
comminus
Condĭciō
coniunx
cōntiō
cottīdiē^[10]
cum or quom
damma
dĭciō
ĕcŭleus
[h]ei!
ĕpistu'la
[h]ĕrus
exim, -in
faenum^[8]
faenus^[8]
fēcundus^[8]
fētidus^[8]
fētus^[8]
fūttilis
Gāĭŭs
gaesum^[9]
gĕnetrīx
glaeba^[9]
Gnaeus
Hadria
haedus^[8]
hăarēna
hărundō
hand, haut, hau^[11]
hăveō
hēiulō
helluō
hŏlus
il[l]icō
Hibērus
hiemps
inclutus
incohō begin
indŭtiae
īnfĭtior
intellego
Kălendae
lăcrima
littera
lītus
maereō, etc'^[8]
mīlle, Sg.
milia, PI.
mul[c]ta
murra myrrh
nē^[12]
nēnia
nēquīquam
nūntiō
oboediō
obscēnus^[8]
obstĭpēscō
ōpiliō
paelex
paene^[9]
paenitet^[8]
Parnāsus
percontor
proelium
prō[h]!
prōmontūrium
pulcher
quattaor
r[h]aeda
quŏtiēns
recĭperō
saeculum^[9]
saepio, etc.^[9]
saaeta^[9]
sătŭra
scaena.
sīcĭne?
sŏlăcium
sŭbŏlēs
sŭeus
suspĭciŏ
taeter^[9]
temptō
tŏ tiĕns
t[li]ūs
Ulixēs
[h]ŭmerus
[h]ū mor, etc.
Vergibius

Additional Notes.—(l) Till after the Augustan period instead of vu, uu, quu we find vo, uo, quo or cu, e.g., volt, equom or ecum. Compare § 270. (2) u as well as i found in Superlatives as māxŭmus, and occasionally elsewhere. (3) n was sometimes left out before s in the Ordinals and the Numeral Adverbs as quīnquiēs, etc., vīcēsimus.

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GENDER OF NOUNS.

§ 260. General Rules.

In names of Rivers, Months, and Males,
And Winds the Masculine prevails;
The softer Feminine agrees
With names of Females, Plants, and Trees.^[13]
Nouns used of either sex, and hence
Varying the Gender with the sense,
Are Common: but of Neuter kind
Whatever cannot be declined.

The Gender of Nouns, if not determined by the above rules, may be known from their Declension and the Ending of the Nom. Sing, as follows:

§ 261. First Declension.

Feminine, except names of men, and Hăadria Adriatic Sea.

§ 262. Second Declension.

Masculine, -ŭs, -ĕr. Neuter, -um.

Exceptions:

Feminine are these in -us,
alvus, colus, carbdsus^[14] Arctus, humus, balanus^[15] With vannus^[16] and the names of Trees. Of Neuter Gender reckon these: vīrus, vulgus, pĕlăgus.^[17]

§ 263. Third Declension. (1) Masculine endings:

Nouns Masculine are all in -ō,
Excepting those in -do and -go,
And Abstracts ending in -ĭō;
And Masculine are -ēn and -ĕn
(Excepting words that end in -mĕn),
With -ōs and -ŏr and -ĕr and -ĭs,
If Genitive is formed -ĕris;
Last, Masculine are -ĕs and -ēs,
If Genitive increase as, pēs.

Exceptions:

-ō]	But cărō "flesh " is Feminine Though sanguis " blood " is Masculine.[18]
-ēn.]	To Neuter glūten we assign.[19][20]
-ōs.]	Neuter ŏs (ossis), also ōs, And Feminine are cos and dos,
-ŏr]	So also arbŏr; Neuter cŏr, With marmŏr, aequŏr, and adŏr
-ĕr.]	Feminine only lintĕr is, Neuter ĭtĕr (ĭtĭnĕrĭs), Neuter cădāvĕr, 'pĭpĕr, ūbĕr, vēr, rŏbŭr, verbĕră, and tūbĕr;
-ĕs.]	While Feminine are compēs, sĕgĕs, quiēs with mercēs, mergĕs, tĕgĕs.[21]

(2) Feminine endings:

All Nouns that end in -ās or -ăas
Among the Feminines we class;
-ūs (-ūtis), -ūs (-ūdis) also,
With Nouns that end in -do and -go
And Abstracts ending in -iō;^[22]
-ĭs (-ĭdis) to this gender give,
-ĭs, ēs with equal Genitive.
-aus, -x, to Feminine we grant,
-s with preceding consonant.

Exceptions:

-ās.]	But Masculine is one, ās, assis. And Neuter also one, vas, vdsis.
-dō.]	Next, Masculine are ōrdō, cardō,
-gō.]	lĭgō (lĭgōnis), also margō[23]
-is]	Add Masculines in -is, nātālis,[24] annālls, amnis, and cănālis,[25] axis, būris, callis, collis,[26] caulis, fascis, fūstis, follis[27] īgnis, pānis, crīnis, corbis,[28] piscis, postis, scrŏbis, orbis,[29] sentēs, cassēs, atque clūnis,[30] veprēs, mānes, finis, fūnis,[31] torquis, torris, unguis, ēnsis[32] vectis, vermis, atque mēnsis.[33]
-x.]	And Masculine are -āx and -yx, Derived from Greek as thorax, Styx. And let the Masculine annex (Save forfex, forpex) all in -ex With Genitive in -ĭcis, -ĕgis, As ăpex (ăpĭcis grex (grĕgis). Then Masculine are fornix, călix. With spādix, phoenīx, atque vărix;[34]
-ns.]	And Masculine are -ōns and -ēns (But Feminine frōns,[35] lēns, and gēns); Masculine adeps (adipis), gits (gliris), lapis {lapidis).

Neuter endings:

To Plants in -ĕr add -ĕ and -c,
-ă, -l, -ĭ, -men,-ŭr,-ăr, and -t,
-ŭs (ĕris), with -ŭs (ŏris) meeting,
-ūs (ūris) then the list completing.

Exceptions:

-ur]	But Masculine are these in -ur, furfŭr, turtŭr,vultŭr, fūr[36] And mūgĭl with lĕpŭs, mūs {mŭris);[37] But Feminine tellūs {tellūris). Two Masculines complete the roll Of Third Declension, sāl and sōl.

§ 264. Fourth Declension.

-ŭs we give to Masculine;
To Neuter -u ; but Feminine
Are ăcus, porticus, and manus,^[38]
With Idus, domus, trtbus, penus.^[39]

§ 265. Fifth Declension

Feminine, except diēs, which is m. or f. in Sing. (fem. in sense of time), m. in Plural, and its compound mĕrīdiēs m.

DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.

First Declension.

§266. Gen. Sing.—An old form in -āī is sometimes found in poetry; as ăqu-ă water, G. ăqu-āī.

Gen. Plur.—A form in -um' instead of -ārum is sometimes used in poetry from words of Greek origin, especially Patronymics, as Aeneādae descendants of Aeneas, G. Aenĕăd-um, and words ending in -gĕna, -cŏla, as caelĭcŏla, dweller in heaven, G. Plur., caelicol-um; drăchmum, amphŏrum, occur in prose.

D. Abl. Plur.—The only words in which classical authors use the inflexion -ābus are dĕă goddess, -fīlĭa daughter, lībertă freed-woman.

§ 267. Greek Nouns.—Proper names ending in -ē(Fem.) and -ās (Masc), and many in ēs (Masc), especially Patronymics in -dĕs, belong to this declension. They often retain the Greek inflexions, thus:

N.	Circ-ē	Aenē-ās	Alcīd-ēs
V.	Circ-ē	Aenē-ā	Alcīd-ē[40]
A.	Circ-ē	Aene-ān or -am	Alcid-ēn
G.	Circ-ēs or -ae	Aenē-ae'	Alcid-ae
D.	Circ-ae	Aenē-ae	Alcid-ae
Abl.	Circ-ē(rarely -ā)	Aenē-ā	Alcid-ē (rarely -ā)

So a few common nouns, as sŏphistēs sophist. Many Greek names in -ē have two forms, one Greek and one Latin: as Ătălantē, G. -ēs, or Ătălantă, G. -ae.

Second Declension.

§ 268. Gen. Sing.—The following Nouns in -ĕr make Gen. in -ĕrī: pŭer boy, sŏcer father-in-law, gĕner son-in-law, vesper evening, ădulter adulterer, Lĭber god of wine.

Gen. Plur.—A form in -um, instead of -ōrum, is used frequently in words denoting money, weights, or measures, as numm-um, mŏdi-um; in Numerals as bīn-um, dŭcent-um; in names of nations (in poetry) as Teucr-um, and sometimes in other words: dĕ-um, dīv-um, sŏcĭ-um, făbr-um, vĭr-um.

It is very rare in Neuters, as stădi-um, tălent-um.

|§ 269. Greek Nouns.—A few Greek Nouns in -ōs, mostly geographical, belong to this declension, and sometimes make Acc. in -ŏn instead of -um, as Dēl-ŏs, A. Dēl-ŏn (-um in prose).

|§ 270. Words ending in' -vus (and -ŭus), -vum (and -uum).—In the earlier Latin [see §259(1) ]these often have -ŏs instead of -ŭs, and -om instead of -um in the Nom. and Ace. Sing.

Thus Nom. ĕqu-ŏs a horse, Acc, ĕqu-om; N., salv-ŏs (m.) safe. Ace, salv-om; Nom. M. mortu-ŏs dead, Neut. mortŭ- om. [cu is often written for quu, as ĕcus, A. ĕcum.]

Third Declension.

§ 271. Acc. Sing, in -im.—Some Nouns with Nom. in -ĭs have -im instead of -em in Acc. Sing. Thus :

(a) Names of Rivers as Tĭbĕrĭm; Greek proper names as Neāpŏlim, Phălărim; and names of Animals and some other words taken from the Greek, as tigrim tiger, băsim 'pedestal.

(b) The following regularly:

sĭtim, tussira, vim, sĕcurirm,^[41] puppim,^[41] turrirm,^[41] also būrim.^[42]

Sometimes other Nouns :

In febris^[43] oft; but seldom nāvis, sēmentis, pelvis, restis, clāvis.^[44]

§ 272. Abl. Sing, in -ī.—Some.Nouns have an Abl. Sing, in -ī answering to the Acc. in -im. It is rarely found outside of Nouns in -ĭs. We have it regularly in:

tussī, vī, sĕcurī, canālī, sĭtī, strĭgĭlī, with sodālī.^[45]

Further it appears in the following words (those in italics having it rarely):

fūstis, febris, turris, nāvis, puppis, pelvis, cīvis, clāvis, sēmentis, īgnis, amnis, orbis, anguis, unguis, clāssis, corbis, With bĭlls, fĭnis: frequently In imbrĭ, sŭpellēctĭlī.^[46]

ăvis often has ăvi when it means omen.

Abl. of Adjectives in -is used as Nouns.—These form their Abl. sometimes in -ĕ, sometimes in -ī. The following regularly have -ī:

cōnsŭlaris ex-consul, fămĭliāris friend, gentīlis one of the same gens, trĭbūlis one of the same tribe, annālis m. annual (register), nātālis m. birthday; nōvālis f. fallow land, bĭpennis f. a two-headed axe.

Abl. Sing, in -ĕ instead of -ī.—The Parisyllabic Neuter rētĕ has Abl. rētĕ; mǎrĕ sea sometimes has Abl. mărĕ in poetry,

-ĕ have the following in -ar, far, baccar, nectar, and iŭbar.

Participles in -ns.—These generally have Abl. in -ĕ if used as Participles or Nouns, but -ī if used as Adjectives.

Thus tē sĕquentiĕ when you were following, a sequent^ interfectus killed by one who was following. But sĕquentī nocte on the following night.

§ 273. Acc. Plur. in -īs.—Nouns and Adjectives sometimes have an Acc. Plur. in -īs as well as -es. Thus nāv-īs, omnīs, trīs.

§ 274. Gen. Plur—The following Parisyllabic Nouns take -um, not -ĭum:

accĭpĭter, vŏlŭcris, iŭvĕnis, vātēsque, cănisque^[47], et păter, et măter, frāter, sēdēsque, sĕnexque.^[48]

ăpis bee, and mēnsis month vary.

The following Monosyllables, though Increasing, take -ium instead of -um: glīs, glīr-ium; vīs, vīr-ium; līs, līt-ium; mūs, mūr-ium; rēn kidney, usually rēn-ium; mās (adj.), măr-ium.

Several Nouns in -ās, -ātĭs (including optīmātēs, pĕnatēs which have no Sing.) have -ium as well as -um, as cīvitātium.

Participles in -ns, -ntis have -um, as well as the more usual -ium, especially in poetry. So also Nouns and Adjectives which are Participial in form; părēns parent almost always makes părentum.

§ 275. Greek Nouns.

Acc. Sing.—Many Proper and some Common Nouns, imparisyllabic, often take the Greek -ă for -em: as Hectŏr, A. Hectŏr-ă or Hectŏr-em, rhētor orator, A. rhētŏr-a or rhētŏr-em. āēr, m. atmosphere, and aethēr, m. upper air, have always āĕr-ă, aethēr-a.

Names in -ēs, -ĭs, -y̆s, take -ēn, -ĭn,-y̆n, as well as -em, -im, -ym, as Sōcrăt-ēn or Sōcrăt-em, Thĕt-ĭn or Thĕt-im, It-y̆n or Ĭt-ym.

Voc. Sing.—Names in -is, -ys, -es, -eus, -ās (G. -antis), form the Voc. by dropping -s from the Nom., -ē being sometimes shortened, e.g., Alĕx-ĭ, Tīph-y̆, Ăchill-ĕ, Atreu, Ătlā.

Gen. Sing.—Names in -ēs, parisyllabic, take -i as well as -ĭs, as Sŏphŏcl-ēs, G. Sŏphŏcl-ī or Sŏphŏcl-ĭs.

Fem. names in -ō have Gen. in -ūs, as Dīdō, Dīdūs.^[49]

Nom. Plur.—Imparisyllabic Nouns often take '-ĕs instead of -ēs: as Arcăs Arcadian, PI. Arcăd-ĕs; lampăs torch, Pl. lampăd-ĕs.

Acc. Plur.—The same Nouns often take -ăs instead of -ēs, as Ărab-s Arab, Acc. Pl. Ărăb-ăs; hērō-s demigod. Acc. Pl. hērō-ăs.

Dat. Abl. Plur.—Greek Neuter Nouns in -mă, G. -mătĭs, always make their Dat. and Abl. Plur. in -īs (instead of -ĭbŭs) as pŏēma. poem, D. Abl. PI. pŏēmatīs.

1. Those who cannot do this may pronounce it like i(ee).
2. Less exactly, poibō
3. Less well as kwee.
4. Less exactly, Băhk-kee tir-soos.
5. Less exactly, kyoo skipoos.
6. Not abiiciō (or abjiciō). So prōiciō and other compounds of iăciō.
7. Noun.
8. Not with oe.
9. Not with e.
10. Not quotīdiē.
11. hau only before consonants.
12. Affirmative Particle.
13. Except Third Declension Nouns in -er which are Neuter, as păpāvĕr poppy ăcĕr maple.
14. Paunch, distaff, linen.'
15. Bear {constellation), ground, balsam.
16. Winnowing-fan.
17. Venom, populace, the open sea.
18. But sanguen blood is Neut.
19. Glūten glue.
20. (For meanings not given in these notes see list (B), § 276.
21. ădor spelt, linter trough, că}dēāvĕr corpse, pĭpĕr pepper, verbĕră (Pl.) blows, tĕgĕs mat.
22. Including Abstracts which have a secondary Concrete meaning, as lĕgiō, rĕgiō, portiō
23. ōrdō rank, cardō hinge,margō edge.
24. birthday.
25. annual, river, conduit.
26. axle, plough-beam, mountain-path, hill.
27. stalk, faggot, cudgel, bellows.
28. fire, bread, hair, basket.
29. fish, door-post, ditch, circle.
30. bramble {pi.), hunting-net (pi.), haunch,
31. briar (pl.), spirits of the dead (pl.), end, rope'
32. necklace, firebrand, nail, knife.
33. lever, worm, mouth; callis, clūnis, cordis, fīnis, scrobis, are sometimes Feminine.
34. thōrāx corselet, forfex shears, forpex tongs, ăpex top-point, spādix palm-branch.
35. Both frōns, frontis, and frōns,frondis, lēns lentil, gēns race.
36. furfŭr bran, turtŭr dove, vultŭr vulture.
37. mūgil mullet, lĕpŭs hare, mūs mouse.
38. needle, arcade, hand.
39. Ides (Plur.), house, tribe, provisions.
40. But other names in -ēs have oc. in -ā or -ă.
41. These three Nouns sometimes have -em
42. Thirst, cough, force, axe, stern of ship, tower, plough-tail.
43. Fever
44. Ship, sowing, basin, rope, key.
45. Strĭgilis flesh-scraper, sodālis comrade.
46. cīvis citizen, clāsis fleet, bīlis bile, imbrī Abl. of imber rain.
47. Kite, bird, young man, bard, dog.
48. sēdēs seat, sĕnex, old man.
49. The V. A. D. Abl. are identical in form with the Nom.

Formation of Genitive in Third Declension.

§ 276. The following lists will enable the student to form the Gen. Sing. (and thence all other cases) from the Nom. Sing. of any Noun of the Third Declension, and any Adjective of the Second Class.

List (A) gives the more usual formations of Nom and Gen. Sing.

List (B) gives all the Nouns and Adjectives used in the Classical period which form their Gen. Sing, otherwise than according to list (A). Words in (B) marked † are rare.

A.

Third Declension Endings.

-is, -is J -es, -is; -e, -is ; -i, -is^[1].
-bs, -bis; -ps, -pis.
-x, -cis (as -āx, -ācis; -īx, -īcis; -ux, -ucis); but -ex,-ĭcis.
-rs, -rtis; -āns, -antis; -ōns, -ontis; -ās, -ātis.
-ō, -onis; but do, -dinis, -gō, gĭnis.
-n, -nis (as -ēn, -ēnis) but -ēn, -ĭnis.
-ăl, -alis; -ar, -aris ; -il, -il-is ; til, -iilis ; -ur, -iiris.
-ĕr, -eris; but -tĕr, -tris, -bĕ,r -bris, -cĕr, -cris.
-ŏr, -oris; -ōs, -ōris.
-ŭs, -ĕris; -ūs, -ūtis; but Monosyllables in -ūs, -ūris.

For illustrations see § 23.

B.

ăbĭēs, ăbĭēt.-ĭs, f. pine
† ăcĕr, ăcĕr-ĭs, n. maple wood
ădeps, ădĭp-ĭs, m. f. fat
aequŏr, aequŏr-ĭs, n. plain
aes, aer-ĭs, n. bronze
† ālēc, ālēc-ĭs,n. fish-sauce
ālĕs, ālĭt-ĭs (adj) winged
† ămĕs, ămĭt-ĭs, m. pole for nets
† ănas, anat-is, f. duck
anceps, ancĭpĭt-ĭs {adj.) doubtful
(So the other compounds from căpŭt, bĭceps (adj.) two-headed; trĭceps three-headed; praeceps headlong.) antistĕs (as sŭperstĕs)
† appendix, appendĭc-ĭs, f. an appendage
arbŏr (arbōs), arbŏr-ĭs, ,f. tree
ărĭes, ărĭĕt-ĭs, m. ram
ās, ass-ĭs, m. copper coin
auceps, aucŭp-ĭs, m. bird-catcher
† baccăr, baccăr-ĭs, n. an aromatic plant
bĭceps (as anceps)
caelbs, caelĭb-ĭs (adj.) un-marricd
† caelĕs, caelĭt-ĭs (adj.) heavenly^[2]
caespĕs, caespĭt-ĭs, m. turf
căalix, călĭc-ĭs, m. goblet
căapĭs, căpĭd-ĭs, f. sacrificial bowl
căpŭt, căpĭt-ĭs, n. head
carcĕr, carcĕr-ĭs, m. prison
cărō, carn-ĭs, f. flesh
cassĭs, cassĭd-ĭs,'f. helmet
Cĕrēs, Cĕrĕr-ĭs, f. goddess of corn
† cĭcĕr, cĭcĕr-ĭs, n. chickpea
cĭnĭs, cĭnĕr-ĭs, m. ashes
cŏmĕs, cŏmĭt-ĭs, m. f. companion
compēs, compĕd-ĭs,f. fetter^[2]
compŏs, compŏt-ĭs (adj.) master of
coniunx or coniux, coniŭg-ĭs, m. f. husband or wife
cŏr, cord-ĭs, n. heart
(So also the Adjective compounds : concors, discors, excors, mĭsĕrĭcors, sōcors, and vēcors.)
corpŭs, corpŏr-ĭs, n. body.
cōs, cōt-ĭs,f whetstone
† cŭcŭmĭs, cŭcŭmĕr-ĭs,m cucumber
cuspĭs,cuspĭd-ĭs,f. spear point
cūstōs, cūstōd-īs, m. f. guaraian
dĕcŭs, dĕcŏr-ĭs, n. ornament
dēdĕcŭs, dēdĕcŭr-ĭs, n. disgrace dēsĕs, dēsĭd-ĭs (adj.) inactive
(So obsĕs, m.f. hostage, rĕsĕs (adj.) inactive; praesĕs m. f. guardian.)
dīvĕs, dīvĭt-ĭs, (adj'.) rich
dōs, dōt-ĭs,f. dowry
ĕbŭr, ĕbŏr-ĭs, n. ivory
ĕquĕs, ĕquĭt-ĭs, m. horseman
făcĭnŭs, făcĭnŏr-ĭs, n. deed
faenŭs, faenŏr-ĭs, n. interest
fār, farr-ĭs, n. spelt
fax, făc-ĭs,f torch
fĕl, fell-ĭs, n. gall
fŭmŭr, fĕmŏr-ĭs, 'n. thigh
† fĭlĭx, fĭlĭc-ĭs, f. fern
† fōrmĕs, fōmĭt-ĭs, m. tinder
forceps (as manceps)
† fornix, fornĭc-ĭs, f. vault
fraus, fraud-ĭs,f. deceit
frīgus, frīgŏr-ĭs, n. cold
frōns, frond-ĭs,f leaf^[3]
fūr, fūr-ĭs, m. thief
glāns, gland-īs,f. acorn
grex, grĕg-ĭs, m. flock
grŭs, gŭ-ĭs,f crane
gurgĕs, gurgĭt-ĭs, m. deep water
hĕbĕs, hĕbĕt-ĭs (adj.) blunt
hērēs, hērēd-ĭs, m. heir
hĭemps [not hĭems], hĭĕm-ĭs, f. winter
hŏmo, hĕmĭn-ĭs, m. & f. human being
(So nēmō̆, m.f. no one.)
hospĕs,hospĭt-ĭs, m. guest, host
iĕcŭr, iĕcŏr-ĭs or
iĕcĭnŏr-ĭs, n. liver
incūs, incūd-ĭs,f. anvil
† indĭgĕs, indĭgĕt-ĭs, m. patron-god
† intercŭs, intercŭt-ĭs (adj.) under the skin
interprĕs, interprĕt-ĭs, in. f agent
ĭtĕr, ĭtĭnĕr-ĭs, n. journey
iŭbăr, iŭbăr-ĭs, n. beam of light
† iūglāns, iūgland-ĭs, f. walnut-tree
lāc, lact-ĭs, n. milk
lăpĭs, lăpĭd-ĭs, m. stone
Lār, Lăr-ĭs, m. household god
lătĕr, lătĕr-ĭs, m. brick
laus, laud-ĭs, f. praise
lĕpŭs, lĕpŏr-ĭs, m. hare
lēx, lēg-ĭs,f. law
(And so elĕx (adj.) 'outside the law.)
lŭgō, lŭgōn-ĭs, m. hoe
līmĕs, līmĭt-ĭs, m. cross-path
līs, līt-ĭs, f. strife
līitŭs, lītŏr-ĭs, n. shore
lŏcŭplēs, lŏcŭplēt-ĭs (adj.) wealthy
lūx, lūc-ĭs,f. light
manceps, mancĭp-ĭs, m. purchaser
(So the other compounds from căpĭō: mūnĭceps, m. inhabitant of a mūnĭcĭpum; forceps, m.f. pincers; partĭceps (adj.) sharing; prīnceps (adj.) chief)
marmŏr, marmŏr-is, n. marble
mās, măr-ĭs (adj.) male
mĕel, mell-ĭs, n. honey
mĕmŏr, mĕmŏr-ĭs (adj.') mindful
(So also immĕmŏr (adj.) unmindful.)
mercēs, mercēd-ĭs, f. wages
† mergĕs, mergĭt-ĭs, f. sheaf
mīlĕs, mīlīt-ĭs, m. soldier
mūnĭceps (as manceps)
nēmō̆ (as hŏmō̆)
nĕmŭs, nĕmŏr-ĭs,n. grove
nĕpōs, nĕpōt-ĭs,m. grandson
nex, nĕc-ĭs, f violent death
nix, nĭv-ĭs, f. snow
nox, noct-ĭs,f. night
obsĕs (as dēsĕs)
ŏs, oss-ĭs, n. bone^[4]
† palmĕs, palmĭt-ĭs, m. vine-shoot
pălus, pălūd-ĭs, f. marsh
pār, păr-ĭs (adj.) equal
(So also dispār, impār, un-equal.)
păarĭēs, părĭĕt-ĭs, m. wall (of a house)
partĭceps (as manceps)
pectŭs, pectŏr-ĭs, n. breast
pĕcūs, pĕcŭr-ĭs, f .herd of cattle
pĕcŭs, pĕcŭd-ĭs, f. head of cattle
pĕdĕs, pĕdĭt-ĭs, m. foot-passenger
pēs, pĕd-ĭs,m. foot
(So also cornĭpēs, quădrŭpēs, and trĭpēs.)
pīgnŭs, pīgnŏr-ĭs, n. pledge
pix, pĭc-ĭs,f. pitch
plūs, plūr-ĭs, n. more
pŏplĕs, pŏplĭt-ĭs, m. back of the knee
praeceps (as anceps)
praedō, praedōn-ĭs, m. robber
praepĕs, praepĕt-ĭs (adj.) swift of flight
praes, praed-ĭs, m. surety
praesĕs (as dēsĕs)
praestĕs (as superstĕs)
prīnceps (as manceps)
† prŏmulsĭs, prŏmulsĭd-ĭs, f.relish
pūbēs, pūbēr-ĭs (adj.) a-dult^[5]
puls, pult-ĭs, f. pottage
pulvĭs, pulvĕr-ĭs, m. dust
quĭēs, quĭēt-ĭs,f. rest
(So rĕquĭēs, f. rest, but see also § 281.)
Quĭrīs, Quĭrīt-ĭs, m. Roman citizen
rēmex, rēmĭg-ĭs, m. rower
rĕsĕs {as dēsĕs)
rēex, rēg-ĭs, m. king
rōbŭr, rōbŏr-ĭs, n. heart of oak
săcerdōs, săcerdōt-ĭs, m.f priest
sāl, săl-ĭs, m. salt
sălix, sălĭc-ĭs,f. willow
sanguī̆ s, sanguĭn-ĭs, m. blood
sătellĕs, sătellĭt-ĭs, m.f. attendant
sĕgĕs, sĕgĕt-ĭs,f. cornfield
sēmĭs, sēmiss-ĭs, m. half-as
sĕnex, sĕn-ĭs (adj.) old
sōl, sōl-ĭs, m. sun
sōspĕs, sōspĭt-ĭs (adj.) safe
† spădo, spădōn-ĭs, m. eunuch
stercŭs, stercŏr-ĭs, n. dung
stīpĕs, stīpĭt-ĭs, m. stock of a tree
strix, strĭg-ĭs,f. screech owl
† sūbĕr, sūbĕr-is, n. cork tree
sŭpellēx, sŭpellēctĭl-ĭs, f. furniture
sŭperstĕs, stiperstit-is [adj.) surviving
(So antistĕs, m. f. overseer; praestĕs, (adj.) protecting.)
sūs, sŭ-ĭs, m.f. pig
tellūs, tellūr-ĭs, f. earth
tempŭs, tempŏr-ĭs, n. time
tĕrĕs, tĕrĕt-ĭs (adj.) round
tergŭs, tergŏr-ĭs, n. back^[6]
† termĕs, termĭt-ĭs, m. bough cut off
† trāmĕs, trāmĭt-ĭs, m. path
† triceps (as anceps)
† tūbĕr, tūbĕr-ĭs, n. swelling,
turbō, turbĭn-ĭs, m. whirl
ūbĕr, ūbĕr-ĭs, n. teat
ūbĕr, ūbĕr-ĭs (adj.) fruitful
† vărix, vărĭc-ĭs, m. f. swollen vein
vās, vă-ĭs, m. bail
vās, vās-ĭs, n. vessel
vēlĕs, vēlĭt-ĭs, m. skirmisher
vēr, vēr-ĭs, n. spring
† vervēx, vervēc-ĭs, m. wether

This list does not include Nouns borrowed from Greek.

Fourth Declension.

§ 277. Gen. Sing.—In old Lat. many Nouns formed their G. Sing, in -ī. senāt-i for senāt-ūs is sometimes found in the Classical period.

Dat. Sing.—The contracted form in -ū prevails in the poets for metrical reasons : it has also good prose authority.

Dat. Abl. Plur. in -ŭbŭs.—In the best Latin -ŭbus (instead of the usual -ĭbus) is found in the following words:

Both have vĕru, spĕcus, portus;
ŭbus only, ăcus, artus,
arcus, tribus, lăcus, partus.

Fifth Declension.

§ 278. Gen. and Dat. Sing.—In these cases -ēī is generally shortened to ĕē if the base ends in a Consonant, as fid-ĕī, r-ĕī.

The ėı was often further contracted in old poets to the diphthong ei, and in Classical times to -e as fĭd-ē. plēbēs, another form of plēbs, has a Gen. plēbi, as in plēbi scitum a decree of the Plebs.

Irregular Nouns.

§ 279. Nouns often written as one Word but declined as two.—păter-fămĭliās m. head of a household (lit. father of a family, familiās being an old Gen. of familia, Declen. 1), Acc. pătrem-fămĭliās, and so on. So also māter-fămĭliās f. filius-fămilĭas m.

rēs-pūblica f. common-weal, state; Acc. rem-pūblicam, and so on.

iūs-iūandum n. oath; Gen. irūs-mrandī, and so on.

§280. Heterogeneous Nouns.—Some Nouns of the Second Declension change their gender in the Plural:

ăcinus	m.	berry	Pl. ăcĭnī or ăcĭnă.
carbăsus	f.	canvas	PI. carbăsă sails.
iŏcus	m.	jest	Pl. iŏcā or iŏcī
lŏ	m.	place	Pl. lŏcā (lŏci in special senses).
sībĭlus	m.	hiss	PL sībĭlă.
frēnum	n.	bit	Pl. frēnī m. or frēna.
rātrum	n.	harrow	Pl. rāstrī or rāstră.

Also certain Greek geographical names in -ŭs, which are used both in Singular and Plural, are Neuter in Plural, as: Avernus Avernă, Maenălus Maenălă, Taenărus Taenără.^[7]

§ 281. Nouns which vary their Declension (Heteroclite Nouns).—Many names of Trees in -us are declined according to both the Second and the Fourth Declension, as: pīnus f.pine, G. pīnī or pīnūs, Dat. pīnō or pīnū (for pīnuī), Abl. pīnū. N. Plur. pīnūs, A. pīnōs or pīnūs, G. pīnōrum, D. Abl. pīnīs. (Compare dŏmus, § 25.)

In cŭpressus cypress, fāgus beech', fīcus, fig-tree, laurus bay, myrtus myrtle, the Second Declension forms prevail; in quercus oak those of Fourth except Gen, Plur. quercōrum.

Note also:

rēquies f. rest (Third and Fifth Declension); Acc. rĕquiem (less often rĕquiētem), G. rĕquiētis, Abl. rĕquiē (rarely rĕquiētĕ). No Plural.

iūgĕerum, -ī n. acre has D. Abl. Plur. iūgĕrĭbus (Third Declension). The G. Plur. is iūmgĕrum.

vās n. G. vāsis vessel has G. Plur. vāsōrum, D. Abl. vāsīs.

balneum (bălĭneum) -ī n, bath; Plur. balnea, etc., baths, and balneae; etc., f. (First Declension) public baths.

ĕpŭlum, -ī n. banquet; Plur. ĕpŭlae f. (in Sing, sense).

pĕnŭs f. provisions (Fourth Declension) has another form, pĕn-us, -ŏris n. pĕn-um, -ī is also found.

§ 282. Defective Nouns.—These are far too numerous for a complete list to be given here. Many Nouns are restricted by their sense to the Sing.^[8]: and Latin has many more Nouns than English which are used only in the Plur.

Many others are deficient in certain Cases; such as:

Indeclinables: fās n. right, nĕfās n. wrong, īnstar n. likeness, used only in N. Acc. sĕecus (Ace.) n. sex: the names of letters of the alphabet. So the Adj. nēquam wicked, frūgī honest, and the Numerals from quattŭŏr to centum, and millĕ in Sing.

Nouns used in One case only: pondō by weight, iūssū by order, iniūssū without orders: spontĕ [suā] of [his own] accord, and other words classed as Adverbs.

Partially Defective Nouns.—The Plural Nouns ambāgēs f. roundabout way, circumlocution, compĕdēs m. fetter, faucēs f. throat, precēs f. prayer, verbĕra n. scourge, flogging, have in the Sing, only Abl, ambāgĕ, compĕdĕ, faucĕ, prĕcĕe, verbĕrĕ.

sordēs f. Pl. squalor, Ace. sordem, rarely Abl. sorde.
dapēs f. Pl. feast, has no N. or D. Sing., and no G. PI.
dĭciōnem f. (Acc.) dominion, lacks N. only.
ŏpem f. (Acc.) aid, G. ŏpis, Abl. ŏpĕ (PI. § 283).
vicem f. (Ace.) change, Abl. vĭicĕ, rarely G. vĭcis: Pl.

N. A. vĭces, D. Abl. vĭcĭbŭs.
fors f. chance, only N., and Abl. fortĕ.
măre n. sea has in PL only N. V. A. măria.
nēmo nobody has no Plur., and nūllīus and nūllō are used for its G. and Abl. Sing.

Hence the rule:

From your memory dismiss
Nēminĕ and nēminis'.

§ 283. Nouns which Change their Meaning in the Plural.

Sing.	Plur.
aedēs f. temple	aedēs house
auxĭlium n. aid	auxĭliă auxiliary troops
carcĕr m. prison	carcĕrēs starting place (in a race)
castrum n. fort	castră camp
cōpia f. abundance	cōpiae troops
fascis m. faggot	fascēs lictor's fasces
hortus m. kitchen garden	hortī pleasure garden, park
impĕdīmentum n. hindrance	impĕdimenta luggage
littĕra f. letter (of the alphabet)	littĕrae epistle, literature
lūdus m. sport	lūdī public games
rōstrum n. beak of bird or ship	rōstră the Rostra (in Forum).
ŏpera f. work, aid	ŏpĕ gang of labourers
ŏpem (Acc.) help	ŏpēs resources

§ 284.

Numerals.

Compound Numbers.—From 13 to 19 inclusive, the smaller number is prefixed without et as Septimus dĕecimus. From 21 to 99 either (a) the larger precedes without et, as vīgintī dŭŏ twenty-two, or (b) the smaller precedes with et, as dŭ ŏ et vīgintī two and twenty. From 101 upwards, the larger generally precedes, without or (except Distributives) with et, as centum (et) trīginta (et) quīnque. But sometimes the smaller precedes with et, as trīgintā et dŭcentī.

The Ordinals must be used to give the Year, as A.D. 100, anno post Christum nātūm centē(n)simō.

The Distributives (1) denote that the number belongs to each of several persons or things as puĕrī dēnum annōrum boys of ten years old each; (2) are used in multiplication as bis bŭina twice two; (3) with Nouns which have no Singular corresponding (§ 283) as bīna castra two camps;^[9] bīnae litterae two letters (epistles), but duae litterae two letters of the alphabet; (4) Poets often use Distributives for Cardinals.

Pronouns.

§ 285. The following are compounds of quis or qui, and are declined like them.

They have often two forms in the Nom. Masc. and N.A. Neut. Sing., viz., quīs, quĭd when Substantival, quī, quod when Adjectival.

ecquis? ecquī? ec-quă, -quae? ecquĭd? ecquod? is there any that?
quispiam, quaepiam, quidpiam, quodpiam, someone
quisquam, (no Fem.), quicquam, anyone at all; (ŭllus supplies missing cases and Plural).
quisquis, (no Fem.), quicquid, whoever; other cases rare except Abl. quōquō.
quisquc, quaeque, quidquS, quodquĕ, each
quīcumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, whoever
quuīlībet, quaelŭbet, quidlŭbet, quodllbet, any you please.
quīvīs, quaevīs, quidvīs, quodvīs, any you please
ūnas-quisquĕ each one, is declined as two words.

-nam is sometimes added to quis? and ecquis? to strengthen them, as quisnam? Who, pray?

Like ŭter (§ 29) are declined its Compounds: ŭterque each of two (G. always ŭtrĭusque); ŭtercumque}}, ŭtervīs, ŭterlibet which of the two you please; alter-ŭter one of the two, declined as one word or two (but D. altĕrŭtri only).

With the Relative Pronouns may be classed the Pronominal Adjectives quălis of what kind, quantus as great as, quŏt (indeclin.) as many as—all also used Interrogatively—to which correspond the Demonstratives, tălis of that kind, tantus so great, tŏot (Indeclin.) so many.

§ 286. Pronominal Adverbs.—Several of the Pronouns have a series of Adverbs corresponding to them, answering the questions: (A) To what place? (B) In what place? (C) From what place? (D) In what way? as follows:

Pronominal Adverbs.

Pronoun	A	B	C	D
quĭs (who?) what?	quō	ŭbī̆	ŭndĕ	ŭrt?
quī (who), which	quō	ŭbī̆	ŭndĕ	ŭt?
ĭs (he), that	eō	ĭbī̆	ĭndĕ	ĭtă
īdem the same	eōdem	ĭbīdem	indĭem	ĭtĭdem
hīc this	hūc	hīc	hinc	(sīc[10])
illĕ that, yon	illūc	illīc	illinc	[10]
istĕ that, that of yours	istūc	istīc	istinc	[10]
ŭterquĕ each of two	ŭtrōque	ŭtoŏbīque	ŭtrimque	[10]
ălĭquis some	ăliquō	ălicŭbi	ălĭcunbde	[10]
quīvis any you please	quōvīvīs	ŭbĭvīs	—	[10]
quīcumque whatever	quōcumque	ŭbĭcumque	undĕcumque	[10]

---

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS.

§ 287. The following list includes:

(i) All Verbs of the First Conj. forming Perf. and Supine otherwise than in -āvi, -ātum.

(2) All Verbs of the Second Conj. forming Perf and Supine otherwise than in -ŭī, -ĭtum.

(3) All Verbs of the Third Conj., except a few Inceptives in -scō, -scĕrĕ.

(4) All Verbs of the Fourth Conj. forming Perf. and Supine otherwise than in -īvī, -ītum.

The Verbs are classified according to the Five Formations of the Perfect. (§ 78.)

The Supine in -um is given when either it or the Perf. Pass. Participle is used by a writer of the Classical period. Failing both, the Fut. Participle, if it exists, is given.

It will assist the student in remembering the Supine if he takes notice that English words derived from Latin verbs are mostly to be referred to this part.

When the Verb is subject to any change in composition, one example at least of a compound is given.

Forms printed in italics are very rare.

§ 288.

First Conjugation.

1.

crĕpō	crepuī	crepĭtum	crepāre	rattle
cŭbō	cubuī or cuādvl	cubĭtum	cubāre	lie down
dŏmō	domui	domĭtum	dŏmāre	tame
frĭcō	fricuī	frictum	fricāre	rub
mĭco	micuī		micāre	quiver.flash
ex-plĭcō[11]	ex-plicāvī (ex-plĭcuī)	ex-plicātum or ex-plicĭtum	ex-plicāare	un-fold
pōtō	pōtāvī	pōtāatum or pōtum	pōtāre	drink
sĕcō	secuī	sectum	secāre	cut
sŏnō	sonui	sonĭtum	sonāre	sound
rĕsŏnō	resonāvī		resonāre	resound
tŏnăt	tonuit		tonā	thunder

3.

stō	stĕtī	stătum [but stātūrus]	stāre	stand
cōnstō	cōonstŭtī[12]	[cōnstātūrus]	cōnstāre	stand firm

4.

iŭvō	iūvī	iūtum	iŭvāre	help
lăvō	lāvī	lăvātum[13]	lăvāre	wash

§ 289.

Second Conjugation

cēnseō	cēnsuī	cēnsum	cēnsēre	assess
cĭeō[14]	cīvī	cĭtum	ciēre	set in motion
excĭō	excīvī	excĭtum or excītum	excī	arouse
dēleō	dēlēvi	dēlētum	dēlēre	blot out
dŏcēo	docuī	doctum	dŏcēre	teach
ferveō	ferbuī or fervi		fervēre[15]	boil (intr.)
flĕō	flēvi	flētum	flēre	weep
mīsceō	mīscuī	mīxtum or mīstum	mīscēre	mix (tr.)
nĕō	nēvī	nētum	nēre	spin
ăb-ŏleo[16]	abolēvi	abolĭtum	abolēre	destroy'
com-pleō	complēvī	complētum	complēre	fill
tĕneō	tenuū	tentum	tenēre	hold
obtĭneō	obtĭnuī	obtentum	obtinēre	retain
torreō	torruī	tōstum	torrēre	roast

2.

algeō	ālsī		algēre	be cold
ārdeō	ārsī		ārdāre	be on fire
augeō	auxī	auctum	augēre	increase (tr.)
fulgeō	fūlsi		fulgēre[17]	shine
haereō	haesī	[haesūrus]	haerēre	stick (intr.)
indulgeō	indūlsī		indulgēre	give way
iŭbeō	iūssī	iūssum	iŭbēre	command
lūceō	lūxī		lūcēre	shine
lūgeō	lūxī		lūgēre	mourn
măneō	mānsī	mānsum	mānēre	remain
mulceō	mulsī	mulsum	mulcēre	stroke
mulgeō	mūlsi		mulgēre	milk
rīdeō	rīsī	rīsum	rīdēre	laugh
suādeō	suāsi	suāsum	suīdere	advise
tergeō	tērsī	tērsum	tergēre	wipe
torqueō	torsī	tortum	torquēre	twist
urgēo	ūrsī		urgēre	press

3.

mordeō	mōmordī	mōrsum	mordēre	bite
pendeō	pĕpendī	pēnsum	pendēre	hang (intr.)
spondeō	spŏpondī	spōnsum	spondēre	promise
tondeō	tŏtondī	tōnsum	tondēre	shear

4.

căveō	cāvī	cautum	cavēre	beware
făveō	fāvi	fautum	favēre	support
fŏveō	fōvi	fōtum	fovēre	foster
mŏveō	mōvī	mōtum	movēre	move (tr.)
sĕdeō	sēdī	sēssum	sedēre	sit
ob-sĭdeo[18]	obsēdī	obsēssum	obsidere	beset
vĭdeō	vīdī	vīsum	vidēre	see
vŏveō	vōvī	vōtum	vovēre	vow

5.

langueō	lāngŭi		languēre	be faint
prandeō	prandī	prānsum[19]	prandēre	lunch
strīdeō[20]	strīdī		strīdēre	screech

The following have a Deponent Perfect:

audeō	ausus sum	audēre	dare
gaudeō	gāvīsus sum	gaudēre	rejoice
pŭdĕt	pudŭit or pudĭtum est	pudēre	make ashamed (impers.)
sŏleō	sŏlĭtus sum	solēre	be accustomed
taedĕt	[per-taesum est]	taedēre	weary (tr.)

§ 290.

Third Conjugation.

1.

cŏ-ălescō	coaluī		coalescere	grow together
ăiō	aluī	altum or ălĭtum	alere	nourish
căpesso	capessīvī	[capessītūrus]	capessere	undertake
cernō	[crēvī]		cernere	sift, descry
dē-cernō	dīcrēvī	dēcrētum	dīcernere	decide
ar-cessō[21]	arcessīvī	arcessītum	arcessere	send for
in-cessō	incessīvī	incessītum	incessere	attack
cŏlō	coluī	cultum	colere	look after
cōnsŭlō	cōnsului	cōnsultum	cōnsulere	consult
crēscō	crēvi	crōtum[22]	crēscere	grow(intr.)
oc-cŭlo	occŭlui	occultum	occulere	conceal
ac-cŭmbo	accŭbuī	accubĭtum	accumbere	recline (at table)
depsō	depsuī		depsere	knead
făcessō	facessīvī	facessītum	facessere	cause, go off
frĕmō	fremuī		fremere	roar
gĕmō	gemuī	gemere	groan
gīgnō	gĕnuī	genĭtum	gīgnere	produce
lăcessō	lacessīvī	lacessītum	lacessere	provoke
lĭnō	lēvī	lĭtum	linere	smear
mĕtō	[mesuī[23]]	messum	metere	mow
mŏlō	molui	molĭtum	molere	grind
nōscō	nōvi		nōscere[24]	get to know
ā-gnōscō	āgnōvī	āgnĭtum	āgnōscere	recognise
cō-gnōscō	cōgnōvī	cōgnītum	cōgnōscere	know
ī-gnōscō	īgnōvī	īgnōtum	īgnōscere	pardon
nōtēscō	nōtuī		nōtēscere	become known
pāscō	pāvī	pāstum	pāscere	pasture
com-pēscō	com-pēscŭī		com-pēscere	confine
pĕtō	petīvī	petītum	petere	seek
pīnsō	pīnsuī or pīnsī	pīnsĭtum, pīstum or pīnsum	pīnsere	pound
plŭĭt	plŭit or plūvit		pluere	rain
quaerō[25]	quaesīvī	quaesītum	quaerere	enquire
con-quīro	conquīsīvī	conquīsitum	conquīrere	search for
răpĭō	rapuī	raptum	rapere	snatch
cŏr-rĭpĭō	corripuī	correptum	corripere	seize
săpĭō	sapīvī		sapere	taste of
dē-sĭpio			dēsipere	be foolish
rĕsĭpĭō	resipīvī		resipiscere	recover sense
scīscō	scīvī	scītum	scīscere	enact
sĕrō	sēvī	sătum	serere	sow
īn-sĕrō	īnsēvī	īnsĭtum	īnserere	graft
sĕrō		sertum	serere	bind
cōn-sĕrō	cōnseruī	cōnsertum	cōnserere	join
sĭnō	sīvī[26]	sĭtum	sĭnere	allow
dē-sĭnō	dēsĭī[27]	dēsĭtum	dēsinere	leave off
pōnō	pŏsŭī	pŏsĭtum[28]	pōnere	place
spernō	sprēvi	sprētum	spernere	despise
sternō	strāvi	strātum	sternere	'throw down
stertō	stertuī		stertere	snore
strĕepō or sŭēscō	strepui		strepere	rattle
suēscō or sŭēscō	sŭēvi or sŭēvī	suētum	sŭēscere or sŭēscere	become accustomed
tĕrō	trīvī	trītum	terere	rub
trĕmō	tremuī		tremere	tremble
vŏmō	vomuī	vomĭtum	vomere	vomit

2.

com-būrō	combūssi	combūstum	combūrere	burn up
carpō	carpsī	carptum	carpere	pluck
dē-cerpo	dēcerpsī	decerptum	decerpere	cull
cēdō	cēssī	cēssum	cēdere	give way
cingō	cīnxī	cīnctum	cingere	gird
claudō	clausī	clausum	claudere	shut
con-clūdō	conclūsi	conclūsum	conclūdere	shut up
cōmō	cōmpsi	cōmptum	cōmere	arrange
cŏquō	coxi	coctum	coquere	cook
dēmō	dēmpsi	dēmptum	dēmere	take away
dīcō	dīxī	dictum	dīcere	say
dīvĭdō	dīvīsī	dīvīsum	dīvidere	divide
dūcō	dūxi	ductum	dūcere	lead
fīgō	fīxī	fīxum	fīgere	fix
fingō	fīnxī	fīctum	fingere	mould
flectō	flexī	flexum	flectere	bend
af-flīgō	afflīxī	afflīctum	afflīgere	knock down
flŭō	flūxī	[flūxūrus]	fluere	flow
gĕrō	gessī	gestum	gerere	carry, do
'iungō	iūnxi	iūnctum	iungere	join
laedō	laesī	laesum	laedere	hurt
col-līdo	collīsi	collīsum	collūdere	dash together
al-lĭcĭo[29]	allexi	allectum	allicere	entice
e-lĭcĭo[29]	ēlĭcŭī	ēlĭcĭtum	ēlicere	entice out
lūdō	lūsī	lūsum	lūdere	play
mergō	mērsī	mērsum	mergere	sink (tr.)
mīttō	mīsī	mīssum	mīttere	send
nectō	nexī or nexŭī	nexum	nectere	bind
ning(u)ĭt	nīnxit		ning(u)ere	snow
nūbō	nūpsī	nūptum	nūbere	marry (of a woman)
pectō	pexī	pexum	pectere	comb
pingō	pīnxī	pīctum	pingere	paint
plangō	plānxī	plānctum	plangere	beat the breast
plaudō	plausī	plausum	plaudere	clap
ex-plōdō[30]	explōsi	explōsum	explōdere	hiss off (the stage)
prĕmō	pressī	pressum	premere	squeeze
com-prĭmo	compressi	compressum	comprĭmere	press together
prōmō	prōmpsī	prōmptum	prōmere	bring out
quătĭō		quassum	quatere	shake
con-cŭtio	concussī	concussum	concutere	shake violently
rādō	rāsī	rāsum	rādere	scrape
rĕgō	rēxī	rēctum	regere	rule
dīrĭgō	dīrēxī	dīrēctum	dīrigere	direct
pērgō	perrēxi	perrēctum	pērgere	proceed
sūrgō	surrēxi	surrēctum	sūrgere	rise
rēpō	rēpsī	rēptum	rēpere	crawl
rōdō	rōsī	rōsum	rōdere	gnaw
scalpō	scalpsī	scalptum	scalpere	scrape
scrībō	scrīpsī	scrīptum	scrēbere	write
sculpō	sculpsī	sculptum	sculpere	carve
serpō	serpsī	serptum	serpere	crawl
spargō	spārsī	spārsum	spargere	scatter
cōn-spergō	conspērsī	conspērsum	conspergere	besprinkle
a-spĭcĭō	aspēxī	aspectum	aspicere	look at
ex-stinguō	exstīnxī	exstīnctum	exstinguere	extinguish
stringō	strīnxī	strīctum	stringere	draw tight
strŭō	strūxī	strūctum	strŭere	build
sūgō	sūxī	sūctum	sūgere	suck
sūmō	sūmpsī	sūmptum	sūmere	take
tĕgō	tēxī	tēctum	tegere	cover
temnō			temnere	despise
con-temnō	contempsī	contemptum	contemnere	despise
ting(u)ō	tīnxī	tīnctum	ting(u)ere	dye
trăhō	trāxī	tractum	trăhere	drag
trūdō	trūsī	trūsum	trūdere	thrust
vādō			vādere	go
in-vādō	invāsī	invāsum	invādere	attack
vĕho	vexī	vectum	vĕhere	draw
vīvō	vīxī	vīctum	vīvere	live
ung(u)ō	ūnxī	ūnctum	ung(u)ere	anoint
ūrō	ūssī	ūstum	ūrere	burn (tr.)

3.^[31]

cădō	cĕcĭdī	cāsum	cadere	fall
occĭdo	occĭdī	occāsum	occidere	perish
caedō	cĕcīdī	caesum	caedere	cut
occīdō	occīdī	occīsum	occīdere	slay
cănō[32]	cĕcĭni		canere	sing
con-cĭno	concĭnŭi		concinere	sing in concert
currō	cŭcurri	cursum	currere	run
dīscō	dĭdĭcī		dīscere	learn
fallō	fĕfellī	falsum	fallere	deceive
parcō	pĕpercī	[pārsurus]	parcere	spare (intr.)
părĭō	pĕpĕrī	partum	părere	produce
com-pĕrio	compĕrī[33]	compertum	comperīre	ascertain
pellō	pĕpŭlī[34]	pulsum	pellere	drive back
pendō	pĕpendī	pēnsum	pendĕre	weigh, pay
pō scō	pŏ pōscī		pōscere	demand
sistō	stĭtī[35]		sistere	stay (tr.)
dēsistō	dēstĭtī		dēsistere	leave off
tangō	tĕtĭgī	tāctum	tangere	touch
at-tingō	attĭgī	attāctum	attingeret	touch, reach
tendō	tĕtendī	tentum[36]	tendere	stretch
tundō	tŏtŏdī	tŭnsum[37]	tundere	thump

Compounds of dō,dĕ dī,dă tum, dă re, give:

ab-dō[38]	abdĭdī	abdĭitum	abdĕere	put away
crēdo	crēdĭdī	crēdĭtum	crēdere	believe
vēndō[39]	vēndĭdī	vēndĭtum	vēndere	sell
ā bs-con-dō	abscondī	abscondĭtum	abscondere	conceal

4.

ăgō	ēgī	āctum	agere	drive, do
ădĭgo[40]	adēgī	adāctum	adĭgere	constrain
cōgō	coēgī	coāctum	cōgere	compel
pĕrăgō	perēgi	perāctum peragere	accomplish
căpĭō	cēpī	captum	capere	take
concĭpĭō	concēpī	conceptum	concipere	take up
ĕdō(§ 85)	ēdī	ēsum	ōssĕ or ĕredere	eat
ĕmō	ēmī	emptum	emere	buy
pĕr-ĭmō	perēmī	peremptum	perimere	destroy
făcĭō	fēcī	factum	facere	make
cōn-fĭcĭō	cōnfēcī	cōnfectum	cōnficere	finish
fŏdĭo	fōdī	fōssum	fŏdere	dry
frangō	frēgī	frāctum	frangere	break
īn-fringō	īnfrēgī	īnfrāctum	īnfringere	break
fŭgĭō	fūgi	[fŭgĭtūrus]	fugere	fly
fundō	fūdī	fūsum	fundere	pour
iăcĭō	iēcī	iactum	iăcere	throw
ab-ĭcĭo[41]	abieci	abiectum	abicere	throw away
lĕgō	lēgī	lē ctum	legere	pick, read
col-lĭgō[42]	col-llēgī	collēctum	colligere	collect
dī-lĭgō	dīlēxī[43]	dīlēctum	diligere	esteem, love
linquō	liquī		linquere	leave
rĕ-linquō	relīquī	relictum	relinquere	leave
pangō	pēgī	pāctum	pangere	fasten
com-pingo	compēgī	compāctum	compingere	compose
rumpō	rūpī	ruptum	rumpere	break
scăbō	[scābi]		scabere	scratch
vincō	vīcī	victum	vincere	conquer

5.

ăcŭō	acuī[44]		acuere	sharpen
argŭō	argui	argūtum	arguere	make clear
bĭbō	bibī		bibere	drink
cūdō			cūdere	hammer
ex-cūdō	excūdi	excūsum	excū dere	forge
de-fendō	dēfendī	dēfēnsum	dēfendere	ward off
findō	fĭdī	fīssum	findere	cleave
con-grŭō	congrŭī		congruere	agree
	īcī[45]	ictum		strike
imbŭō	imbŭī	imbŭtum	imbuere	steep
lambō	[lambī]		lambere	lick
lŭō	lŭī		luere	expiate
dīlŭō	dīlŭī	dīlūtum	dīluere	wash away
mandō	[mandī]	mānsum	mandere	chew
mētŭō	mĕtŭī		metuere	fear
mŭnŭō	minŭī	minūtum	minuere	lessen
ab-nŭō	abnŭī		abnuere	nod refusal
pandō	pandī	pāssum	pandere	spread
ex-pandō	expandī	expānsum	expandere	spread out
psallō	psallī		psallere	play the harp
rŭō	rŭī	[rŏĭtūrus]	ruere	fall
dī-rŭō	dīrŭī	dīrŭtum	dīruere	destroy
scindō	scĭdī	scīssum	scindere	tear
sīdō	sīdī		sīdere	settle (intr.)
solvō	solvi or sŏlŭī	sŏlūtum	solvere	loosen
spŭō	spŭī	spūtum	spuere	spit
stŭtŭō	stătŭī	statŭtum	statuere	set up
cōn-stituō	cōnstĭtŭi	cōnstitūtum	cōnstituere	set up
sternŭō	sternŭī		sternuere	sneeze
sŭō	sŭī	sŭtum	suere	sew
tribŭō	trĭbŭī	tribŭtum	tribuere	assign
ex-ŭō	exŭī	exŭtum	exuere	put off(clothes)
ind-ŭō	indŭī	indŭtum	induere	put on (do.)
vellō	vellī	vulsum	vellere	pluck
verrō	verrī	versum	verrere	sweep
vertō	vertī	versum	vertere	turn (tr.)
vīsō	vīsī		vīsere	go to see
volvō	volvī	vŏlŭtum	volvere	roll (tr.)

Deponent in Perfect.

fīdō

fisus sum

fisum

fidere

trust

The following have no Perfect.

frendō	frēsum	frendere	gnash
frīgō	frīctum	frīgere	roast
lingo	līnctum	lingere	lick
sallō or sălĭō	salsum	sallere	salt

The following have neither Perfect nor Supine:

angere	choke (tr.)	glūbere	peel
fŭrere	rage	plectere	punish
glīscere	swell	vergere	incline (intr.)
tollere	lift borrows Perf. sustūli, Sup. sublātum from sufferre.

§ 291.

Fourth Conjugation.

ăpĕrĭō	ăperŭi	apertum	aperīre	open
ŏpĕrĭo	opertŭī	opertum	operīre	cover
sălĭō	saluī		sălīre	jump
dē-sĭlĭo	dēsiluī		dēsilīre	jump down
sĕpĕlĭō	sĕpĕlīvī	sepultum	sepelīre	bury

2.

fulcĭō	fulsī	fultum	fulcīre	prop
haurĭō	hausī	haustum	haurīre	draw, drink
sancĭō	sanxī	sanctum	sancīre	ordain
sarcĭō	sarsī	sartum	sarcīre	patch
sentĭō	sēnsī	sēnsum	sentīre	feel
vincĭō	vinxī	vinctum	vincire	bind

§ 292.

Deponent Verbs.

The following list includes all deponents of the Third Conjugation, and those of the Second and Third whose Past Participles are formed otherwise than with -ĭtus, -ītus respectively. All deponents of the First Conjugation form the Part, regularly with ātus.

Second Conjugation.

făteor	fassus	fătēri	confess
cōnfĭteor	cōnfessus	cōnfitēri	confess

Third Conjugation.

ăpiscor	aptus	apisci	get
ăd-ĭpiscor	adeptus	adipisci	obtain
calvor		calvi	intrigue
expērgiscor	experrēctus	expērgiscī	awake
frŭor	frūctus(ffruitus)	fruī	use, enjoy
fungor	fūnctus	fungī	perform(atask)
grădĭor	grēssus	gradī	walk
prō-grŭdior	prōgrēssus	prōgrĕdī	go forward
īrāscor	īrātus	īrāscī	be angry
lŏquor	lŏcutus	loquī	talk
com-mĭniscor	commentus	comminiscĭ	contrive
rĕ-mĭniscor		reminiscĭ	recollect
nanciscor	nactus or nanctus	nancisci	get
nāscor	nātus	nāsci	be born
nītor	nīsus or nixus[46]	nītī	rest upon, strive
oblīviscor	oblītus	oblīviscī	forget
păciscor	pactus[47]	paciscī	make a compact
pătĭor	passus	păti	allow
am-plector	amplexus	amplectī	embrace
prŏfĭciscor	profectus	proficiscī	start, set out
sĕquor	sĕcūtus	sequī	follow
ulciscor	ultus	ulciscī	revenge
ūtor	ūsus	ūtī	use
vescor		vescī	feed oneself

Fourth Conjugation.

assentĭor	assĕnsus	assentīrī	assent
expĕrĭor	expertus	experīrī	try
mētĭor	mēnsus	mētīrī	measure
ōrdĭor	ōrsus	ōrdīrī	begin
ŏrĭor	ortus	ŏrīrī	rise

Remarks on the Conjugations.

§ 293. Omission of -v, -vi -ve.—This omission, noted in the First and Fourth Conjugation, is sometimes found in the other Conjugations: e.g., dēflēstī for dēflēvistī; pĕtĭĭ, etc., for pĕtīvī, etc., and often nōstī, nōrim for nōvistī, nōvĕrim. In compounds of īrĕ go, these forms are used almost exclusively.

Omission of -is.—Where i comes between two s's, -is is (rarely) omitted in poetry, e.g., dīxtī for dīxistī, extīnxem for exstīnxissem.

Where the Interrogative Particle -ne is appended to the Second Sing. Pres. Ind., the combination is sometimes shortened, as vĭdĕn? for vĭdēsne? So with sătĭs (Adv.), sătĭn? for sătisne?

§ 294. Imperfect Indicative.—In the Fourth Conjugation a form in -ibam instead of ĭēbam is found in poetry, as aud-ībam.

Perfect Indicative.—The Third Pers. Plur. in -unt is often short in poetry, as stetĕrunt.

Imperative.—Făcere makes făc in the 2nd Sing. Imper. (first form); dīcĕre, dūcĕre, ferre (and their compounds), make dīc, dūc, fĕr. Scīre has scītō only.

Infinitive Present Passive.—Poets sometimes use -iĕr for ī: as fārĭĕr for fārī.

Gerund and Gerundive.—In the Third and Fourth Conjugations these often end in -undum, -undus, instead of -endum, -endus, as făciund-um, făciund-us.

Derivative Verbs.

§ 295. Derivative Verbs are those formed from other Verbs, and from Nouns or Adjectives. The latter are sometimes called "Denominative" Verbs. The following are important classes of Derivative Verbs.

Desiderative Verbs, expressing desire for an action. These are of the Fourth Conjugation, and are formed from the Supine base of the original Verb by the inflexion -ŭriō, -ărīrĕ; e.g. (ĕd-ere, es-um eat), ēs-ărīre be hungry.

Intensive Verbs, expressing the same idea as the original Verb but intensified in some way. These are of the First Conjugation, and are formed directly from the base of the Supine; e.g. (iac-ēre, iact-um throw), iact-āre toss.

Frequentative Verbs, expressing the frequent repetition of the action of the original Verb. These are of the First Conjugation, and are formed from the Present, or less often from the Supine, by the inflexion -itō, -itāre (-ītārĕ if the original Verb is of the Fourth Conjugation); e.g. (clamāre shout), clām-ĭtāre clamour; (scrīb-ĕrĕ, scrīpt-um write), scrīpt-ĭtāre write often; (dormī-re sleep), dormī-tāre nod.

But both Intensives and Frequentatives often came to be used in the mere sense of their original Verbs.

Inceptive Verbs, expressing the beginning of an action. These are of the Third Conjugation, and are formed—

{a) From the Present of Verbs, with the inflexion -āscĕrĕ -ēscĕre, -iscĕre, '-īscĕre, according as the original Verb is of the First, Second, Third, or Fourth Conjugation.

(b) From Nouns or Adjectives ("Denominative" Verbs), with the inflexion -escere (or sometimes -āscĕrĕ).

These Verbs commonly have no Perfect or Supine, but some borrow these parts from their original Verbs; e.g. (trĕm-ĕrĕ tremble), trĕm-iscĕre begin to tremble; (ārd-ēre burn), ex-ārd-ēscĕrĕ, ex-ārsī, ex-ārsum burst into flame, (mātūr-us ripe), mātūr-ēscĕre ripen.

§ 296.

Prepositions.

The following is a complete list of the Latin Prepositions, giving their general meaning, the cases they take (A., Abl., G.), and the forms which they assume in composition with Verbs and Adjectives. The most frequent change is the assimilation of their final consonant to the initial consonant of the Verb or Adjective.

1. Prepositions found separately and in Composition.

ăb, ā, abs from (Abl.), ā– before m, v: ā-mŏvēre. au- before f: au-ferre. abs- before c, t: as abs-condĕre, ās- before p: as as-portāre. ăb- elsewhere.

ăd to (A.). Assimilated before c, q: ac-cēdĕre, ac-quīrĕre; and sometimes before other consonants, a- sometimes before sc, sp, st: as a-spicipō^[48]

antĕ before (A.), anti- in anti-stāre.

circum round (A.). Sometimes drops m as circu(m)-īre.

cum with (Abl.). Generally con- in composition, com- before b, m, p: as com-būrĕre. Assimilated before l, r: as col-lĭgĕre. cō- before n: as cō-nectere. cŏ- before vowels and h: co-ire, cŏ-haerēre.

contra against (A.). A form contrō- is also used in composition.

dē down from, from (Abl.).

ex, ē out of, from (Abl.). ex- before vowels, h, c, p, s, t: as ex-īre, ex-cēdĕre, ex-spectāre.^[49] ef- regularly, ec sometimes before f: ef-ferre or ec-ferre. e elsewhere.

ĭn into (A.), in (Abl.). ĭm- before b, m, p: as im-bĭbere. Assimilated (sometimes) before l, r: as ir-rĭgāre.

intĕr between (A.). Assimilated only in intel-lĕgĕre.

[intrā within (A.)], īntrō- is used in composition.

ŏb in front of (A.). Assimilated before c, f, p: as oc-clūdĕre. Before s, t, sometimes written (as pronounced) op-, as op-tendĕre.^[50]

pĕr through (A.). Assimilated only in pel-lĭcĕre, pel- lūcēre. Compounded with Adjectives it often means very.

post behind, after (A.). pō in pō-mērium.

prae in front of (Abl.). Shortened before vowels as prăe-īre.

praeter past, beyond (A.).

prō before, forth (Abl.). prod- before vowels: prōd-īre. A cognate Preposition prŏ- is used in many compounds.

sŭb under (A. § 135, Abl. § 153). Usually assimilated before c, f g, m, f, r: as suc-ēedere, sur-rŏgāre (but sub-rŭĕre). A form sus^[51] before t, and sometimes before c, p: sus-tĭnēre, sus-tulī, sus-cĭpĕre, sus-cēnsēre, sus-pendĕre. In composition with Adjectives sŭb often means slightly.

subtĕr under (A., with Abl. only in poetry).

sŭpĕr over (A. § 135, Abl. § 153).

trāns across. tra often before d, i (consonant), n: trā-dūcere, tra-icĕre {see page 118 n.¹), trā-nāre (or trāns-nāre); sometimes before l, m: as trā-lūcēre.

2. Prepositions not used in Composition:

adversŭs or adversum towards A. (so exadversus), apŭd by, before A., circā about A., circĭter about A., cĭs this side of A., cĭtra this side of A., clam unknown to A., cāram in presence of Abl., ērgā towards (of relation), extrā outside A., īnfrā below A., intrā (see above), intus within (rare) Abl., iūxtā close to A., pĕnĕs in the power of

A., pōne behind A., prŏcŭl far from Abl., prŏpĕ near A., proptĕr near, because of A., sĕcundum following on A., Sĭmŭl together with Abl., sĭnĕ without Abl., sŭprā above A., tenŭs as far as G., Abl. (always follows its case),^[52] versŭs towards A. (rare, usually follows its case), ultrā beyond A., usquĕ right up to A.

3. Prepositions only used in Composition:

Ambĭ- on both sides. amb- before vowels: am-bīre. am- before consonants: am-pūtāre. an- before c, q: an-quīrēre.

Dĭs- asunder. Assimilated before f, s: as dif-ferre. dī- before d, g, l, m, v, and s with following consonant: as dī-dūcĕre, dī-mīttĕre, dī-scindĕre. dĭr- before vowels: dĭr-īmĕre.

Por- forth. Assimilated before l, s: pol-lĭcērī, pos-sĭdēre.

Prŏ- forth. See above.

Rĕd-, rĕ- again, back. rĕ- before consonants, except red-dĕre; rĕd- before vowels. Note repperī, reppulī, rettulī.

[Sēd-] sē- apart, sē- before consonants; sēd- in sēd-ĭtĭo.

SUPPLEMENTARY SYNTAX.

The following Sections to § 431 contain additions to and further illustrations of the rules in Part 1., and in general are arranged in the same order.

§ 297. Subject, Predicate, and Connexion. (1) The mode of indicating Connexion between Subject and Predicate by simply placing them side by side [§ 111 (3)] is also found in Dependent Construction after an Active (or less often a Passive) Verb of saying or thinking. It is especially frequent with the Past Part. (§ 200*), the Fut. Part. (§ 201), and the Gerundive, as hōc ăgundum cēnset he thinks this should be done.

The fuller expression with sum [§111 (4)] must be used where the Verb, if inserted, would be other than est, sunt, or esse.

Ellipse.—Exceptions are found in abbreviated expressions as bĕnĕ tĭbĭ (sc. sĭt) health to you! In such, other Verbs have often to be supplied, as mănum dē ăbŭlā (sc. tollĕ)! hands off the slate!

(2) Adverbs are sometimes used as Predicates with essĕ. They really qualify the Verb: haec mălĕ sunt this is wrong (lit. in a bad way).

§ 298.

Secondary Predicates.

The Verbs which take a Secondary Predicate (Adjective or Noun) are those of naming, thinking, making, 'choosing, and showing. In the Active the Predicate agrees with the Direct Object, and in the Passive with the Subject, according to the rules of Concord.

Acc., bŏnum tē vŏcās? do you call yourself good? Caesar dīctātōrem sē fēcĭt Cæsar made himself dictator; praestā tē vĭrum show yourself a man.

Nom., bŏnŭs exīstĭmārīs you are thought good; Caesar cōnsŭl factŭs est Cæsar was made dictator.

A Secondary Predicate in the Nom. is also used with fiō I become (used for Passive of făcĭō), existō, ēvādō I turn out, appāreō 'I appear, vĭdĕor I seem (lit. I am seen), mănĕo I remain: bŏnŭs ēvādĭt he turns out good.

§ 299. Apposition to a Sentence.—A Noun or Neut. Adj. may be put in apposition to a Sentence, referring to its meaning as a whole. The Nom. is used if the verbal idea is Intransitive or Passive, the Ace. if it is Active.

Examples: Nom., māiestātis crīmĭnă subdēbantur vinclum ĕt nĕcessitās sĭlendī charges of high-treason were trumped up, to bind and force them to be silent (as a bond and necessity for silence). Acc, Eumĕnem prōdĭderĕ pācis mercēdem they betrayed Eutnencs in payment for the peace.

Peculiarities of Agreement.

§ 300. Construction according to the Sense.—Sometimes a word agrees with the sense (instead of the form) of the word to which it is referred.

Hence the Plur. is often used (1) with Singular Nouns of Multitude: māgnă pars mīlĭtum vulnerati sunt a great part of the soldiers were wounded. (2) with words coupled by cum together with: Īlĭă cum Lausō dē Nŭmĭtōrĕ săti Ilia and Lausus were sprung from Numitor. Other examples are: căpĭtă coniūrātĭōnis caesī sunt the heads (i.e. leaders) of the conspiracy were put to death, ĕpĕrīte ălĭquĭs ostĭum open the door, one of you! Centaurō invĕhĭtur māgnā he sails in the great Centaur (ship, hence fem.).

§ 301. Attraction.—(1) Where the Predicate is a Noun of different Gender or Number from the Subject, the Verb (and Participle) sometimes agree with the Predicate: gēns ūnĭversā Vĕnĕtī appellātī sunt the tribe as-a-whole were called the Veneti. In such cases the Predicate is always put before the Verb.

(2) The Relative is generally attracted to agree with the Predicate of its own sentence if a Noun, instead of with its Antecedent: Thēbae quod (rather than quae) est Boeōtĭae căpŭt Thebes which is the capital of Boeotia.

(3) The Relative is occasionally attracted into the Case of its Antecedent: raptim quĭbus (for quae Acc.) quisquĕ pŏtĕrăt (sc. efferre) ēlātis each having taken out hurriedly the things which he could (take out).

The Antecedent is rarely made to agree in Case with the Relative: urbem-quam-stĕtŭō vestra est the city I found is yours.

(4) In phrases like nōmĕn est mĭhĭ my name is, the name is generally put in the same case as the person: mĭhĭ Mĕnaechmō nōmĕn est my name is Menaechmus.

Accusative.

§. 302. Acc. of Direct Object—A number of Intransitive Verbs by a change of meaning take an Ace. of the Direct Object.

Expūgnāvit urbem		He captured (fought out) the city'.
Rem dŏlĕŏ, hŏmĭnem rīdĕō	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	I greive at the thing, I laugh (at) the man.

§ 303. Accusative of Extent of Space and Time.

Fossă trēs pĕdēs lātă	A ditch three feet wide.
Sex indŭ passūs cōnstĭtĭt	He stopped six paces from there.
Trīgintā annōs nātŭs	Thirty years old.
Pĕrĭīt ăbhinc annōs dĕcem	He died ten years ago.

Sometimes pĕr is used of the time throughout which: lūdī pĕr dĕcem dĭēs factī sunt games were celebrated for ten days.

§ 304. "Cognate" Accusative.—This can only be used without an Adj. if the Noun has a force of its own: servĭt servĭtūtem he slaves as a slave.

In place of the Adj. and Cognate Noun, another Noun may be used to define the action: vincĕrĕ causam to win a case (to gain a victory in a case) ; Glaucum saltārĕ (poet.) to dance the "Glaucus" (dance).

§ 305. Accusative with Verbs compounded with Prepositions.—Verbs may take the Ace. because they are compounded with Prepositions which take the Acc.

So (a) Intransitive Verbs: ădŏrīrī hostēs to rise against (to attack) the enemy; so, incrĕpārĕ cry out against, sŭbīrĕ go under or undergo, etc.

(b) Transitive Verbs (with Acc. of Direct Object also); so especially compounds of trāns: Caesăr mīlĭtēs amnem trānsportăt Cæsar carries his troops across the river. So ănĭmum advertĕrĕ (also ănimadvertĕrĕ): ănĭmum advertī hŏmĭnem I turned my mind to the man (I observed the man).

§ 306.

Double Accusative.

Two Accusatives may go
After cēlō, dŏcĕo,^[53]
ōrō, pōscō, flāgĭtō,^[54]
rŏgō and interrŏgō.^[55]

The Acc. of the thing is kept in the Passive.

Rem mē cēlāvĭt	He hid the matter from me.
Pōscĕ dĕōs vĕnĭam	Ask pardon of the gods.
Pōscĭmur vĕnĭam	We are asked for pardon.

§ 307. Rare or Poetical Usages.—(1) The Acc. of Neuter Adjectives (both Sing, and Plur.) is used freely by the poets in place of an Adverb: perfĭdum ridēns smiling treacherously, vānă tŭmens swelling idly. This is an Ace. of Extent, § 132.

(2) The Acc. of Extent is also used of the Part Concerned, when Prose uses the Abl.: trĕmĭt artūs he trembles in-his-joints, Crēssă gĕnŭs Cretan as to her race (of Cretan race). [In prose, partem with an Adj.: maxĭmam partem lactĕ vīvunt for the chief part they live on milk.] Poets use this Ace. very frequently with the Passive, e.g.: mentem formīdĭne pressus with his mind crushed by fear.

☞This Acc. is to be distinguished from another one which is found with Passive Verbs, used in a Reflexive sense, e.g. ĭnūtĭlĕ ferrum cingĭtŭr he girds on his useless sword, where cingĭtur is virtually equal to sĭbĭ cingĭt; iniplexae crīnĭbŭs anguēs having snakes twined in their hair.

Dative.

§ 308. Dative of Indirect Object.—(1) This Dat. is to be used wherever to can be inserted with a Noun in English without altering the sense, as I give you this (or to you) hōc tĭbĭ dō. (2) The chief Verbs which take it are given in the following lines:

Command, obey, oppose, or aid.
Spare, threaten, pardon, and persuade.
Take Datives. Add give, tell and show,
Please, envy, harm, displease, and owe,
Heal, counsel, nūbō, stŭdĕŏ,
Yield, trust, permit, indulgĕŏ^[56]

For a fuller list see § 453.

☞But mark, Accusatives must go
With laedō, sānō, iubĕō,^[57]
Dēlectō, sĭnō, and iŭvō.^[58]

(3) Many Verbs take a Dative when compounded with

ăd, antĕ, cŏn, ĭn, intĕr, dē,
sŭb, sŭpĕr, ŏb, prae, post, and re.

Mortem mĭhĭ mănātŭr	He threatens me with death.
Hōc ĕī persuāsi	I persuaded him of this.
Collēgae tŭō grātĭam rĕfĕr	Thank your colleague.
Ērĭpē mē turbae	Rescue me from the crowd.

§ 309. Dative with Adjectives and Adverbs.

1. With friendly, useful, like and near,
Needful, suitable, and dear,
(And their contraries, 'tis clear)
Datives generally appear.

2. Adverbs of several of these Adjectives also take the Dat.

Inĭmīcŭs est sĭbĭ	He is his own enemy.
Noxĭae poenă pār estō	Let the penalty be equal to the offence.
Finĭtĭmŭs est ōrātōrī poētă	Oratory (the orator) is akin to poetry.
Congrŭentĕr nātūrae vīvĕrĕ	To live according to nature.

Pār, dispār, sĭmĭlĭs, dissĭmĭlĭs, contrārĭŭs, săcĕr sacred to, sŭperstĕs surviving, are found both with the Dat. and Gen.

§ 310. 'Dative of the Person Judging.—The person judging or taken as a standard is often put in the Dative: formōsa est multīs she is beautiful to (in the judgment of) many. So especially in the Present Participle: turrēs prŏcŭl intŭentĭbŭs părēs towers of equal size when viewed from-a-distance (to those who viewed- them from-a-distance).

§ 311. The Predicative Dative.—Besides sum, this is found with hăbĕo, dūcō consider, dō assign as, and some other Verbs.

The Datives auxĭlĭō, subsĭdĭō, etc., to the help of, are used with Verbs of going and sending.

I ask whom it did good to.
Hăbērĕ quaestuī rem pūblĭcam	To regard the state as gain.
Auxĭlĭō Caesări mīttĭtur	He is sent to Cæsar's aid.
Hōc māgnae laudī tĭbĭ est[59]	This is greatly to your credit.

§ 312. Poetical Usages.—(1) Poets sometimes use the Dat. for ā or ăb with the Abl. of the Agent: carmĭană quae scrīabuntŭr ăquae pōtōrĭbŭs poems which are written by water drinkers.

(2) Poets use the Dal. of the Indirect Object with several Verbs, etc., with which it is not allowed in prose; sōlus tĭbĭ certĕt Amyntās Amyntas only would contend with you; vir tŭŭs est ĕpŭlās nōbĭs ădĭtūrŭs ĕāsdem your husband is going to the same banquet as I (for ĕāsdem ĕpŭlās atquĕ nōs).

Also after Verbs of Motion for ăd with the Ace. . it caelō clāmŏr a shout goes to heaven.

Genitive.

§ 313. Genitive with Nouns.

Contentĭō hŏnōrum[60]	A struggle about offices.
Hectŏrĭs Andrŏmăchē[61]	Hector's (wife) Andromache.
Pūgnātur ăd Vestae[61]	They fight by Vesta's (temple).
Est ŏpĕrae prĕtĭum.	It is worth while (lit. the price of the work)
Haec vōx vŏluptātĭs[62]	This word "pleasure."
Hŏmo īnfĭmī gĕnĕrĭs[63]	A man of the lowest rank.

(1) The Gen. of Description cannot be used without an epithet. A man of eloquence is not vĭr ēlŏquentiae but vĭr ēlŏquēns, or, if more emphasis is desired, vĭr multae ēlŏquentiae.

For the difference between it and the Abl. of Description, see § 322*.

(2) The Gen. of Possession is used with essĕ as a Predicate to the Inf: paupĕrĭs est nŭmĕrārĕ pĕcŭs it is the work of a poor man to count his flock.

§ 314. Genitive with Verbs.

Căpĭtĭs damnātur[64]	He is condemned on a capital charge.
Oblīvīscĭtŭr Epĭcūrī[65]	He forgets Epicurus.

Rĕcordŏr always and mĕmĭnī, rĕmĭnīscŏr, oblīvīscŏr often take an Ace.

§ 315. The Gen. of Possession is found with rēfert it concerns, intĕrest it makes a difference. In place of the Gen. of the Personal Pronouns, the Possessives are used (§ 161). They are put into the Abl. Fem.; mĕā,tŭā, sŭā, etc.

Nūllīŭs măgĭs intĕrest quam tuā mē salvum essĕ	To no one does it make more difference than to you that I should be safe.
Multum hōc nostrā rēfert	This concerns us much.

Mĕā rēfert, etc., are probably from mĕā rē fert it bears in the direction of my concern (Abl. of Route), and mĕā intĕrest probably means there is a difference (lit. there is something between) in my direction or in the direction of my concern.

§ 316. Genitive with Adjectives.—The Genitive is found with many Adjectives, especially (a) Active Participles used adjectivally, and other adjectives containing a Verbal Notion.

Appĕtentĭssimŭs hŏnestātĭs	Most eager for virtue.
Cŭpĭdŭs contentiōnis	Longing for contention.
Mēns cōnscĭă rēctī	A mind conscious of right.

(b) Adjectives of fulness, want, participation, or ownership.

Plēnissĭmŭs piscĭum	Very full offish.
Rătiōnĭs expers	Destitute of reason.
Vĭrōrum prŏprĭum	Belonging (peculiar) to men.

§ 317. Poetical uses.—In poetical writing the Gen. of Connexion is used after many Adjectives which do not admit it in prose: aevī mātūrŭs ripe in respect of age, spernendŭs mōrum despicable in character.^[66]

Also after Verbs: iūstĭtĭaenĕ prĭus mīrer bellīne lăbōrum? am I to wonder at you first for your justice or your toils in war? dulcī lăbōrum dēcĭpĭtŭr sŏnō he is beguiled from his toils by the sweet sound.^[66]

Ablative.

§ 318. Ablative Proper.

Rōmā scrīpsĭt Balbŭs[67]	Balbus wrote from Rome.
L. Dŏmĭtĭŭs Fabiā [68]	L. Domitius from the Fabian tribe (f.)
Ab īrātīs intĕrĭīt[69]	He was killed by angry men.
Ostrĕīs mē abstĭnŭī[70]	I refrained from oysters.
Spī sēriŭs vēnĭt[71]	He came later than was hoped.

§319. Instrumental Ablative.

Pyrrhŭs lăpĭdĕ mterfectŭs est[72]	Pyrrhus was killed by a stone
Carnĕ vīvunt, āleā lūdunt'[72]	They live on (by) meat, they play at {it,) dice.
Lăpĭdĭbŭs plŭit'[72]	It rains stones (with stones).
Gŭbernātōrĭs ars ūtĭlĭtātĕ laudatur'[73]	The pilot's art is praised for its usefulness.

A Preposition is often used, as ob or propter iitilitatem on account of its usefulness.

§ 320. Agent and Instrument.

1. The poets sometimes put in ăb when speaking of things: factŭs ăb artĕ dĕcŏr beauty made by art. Sometimes they omit it in speaking of persons (regarded as instruments): cūrātŭs ĭnaequālī tōnsōrĕ căpillos with his hair dressed by an uneven hairdresser (i.e. cut unevenly),

2. Per with the Ace. is used for the means by which anything is done': pĕr dŏlum by craft, pĕr nūmtĭum certĭŏr factŭs informed by means of a messenger.

s 321.

Māgnō id illī stĕtĭt[74]	That cost him dear (lit. a great sum).
Quŏd nōn ŏpŭs est, assĕ cārum est	What is not wanted, is dear at a penny.
Quō plūrēs hostēs, ĕō māiŏr caedēs[75]	The more the enemy, the greater the slaughter.
Quīnque mīlĭbus passuum ăb urbĕ distăt[75]	It is distant (by) five miles from the city.
Bīduō post mŏrĭtŭr[75]	Two days after he dies.
Summā vī pūgnārĕ'[76]	To fight with the greatest violence.

Either cum or an epithet must be used with this Abl.: cum cūrā scrībĕrĕ to write with care (not cūrā), summa cūrā or summā cum cūrā with the greatest care.

The simple Ablative is sometimes used adverbially: rătĭōnĕ fēcistī you have acted reasonably, fraudĕ by fraud, cāsū by chance, etc. But no Noun must be so used without direct authority.

§ 322.

Stătūrā fŭĭt hĭmĕlī[77]	He was of low stature.
Clāvī ferrĕī pollĭcĭs crassĭtū-dĭnĕ	iron nails of the thickness of your thumb.

The Gen. of Description [§ 313(1)] is used in giving the class of anything, and in expressions of number and quantity. The Abl. is used when the parts of anything are spoken of; also to express a temporary state. Both the Gen. and Abl. are used of mental qualities.

§ 323. The Ablative of Attendant Circumstances (Ablative Absolute) may be rendered into English in many ways:—

Urbĕ captā rĕdĭīt	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \\\ \\\ \\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	The city being taken	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \\\ \\\ \\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	he returned
		After the city was taken
		Saving taken the city
		When he had taken the city
		After taking the city
		After the taking of the city.
Cănīnĭō cōnsŭlĕ	In the consulship of Caninius.
Mē iūdĭcĕ falsŭs ĕs	In my opinion you are mistaken.
Nōn lŏcō castrīs capto nĕc auspĭcātō nĕc lĭtātō, instrŭunt ăcĭem	Without choosing a place fat the camp, or taking-the-auspices, or offering-a-favourable-sacrifice, they drew up their army.
Virtūtēs iăcent vŏluptātĕ dŏmĭnantĕ	The virtues lie prostrate if pleasure is mistress.
Pătrĕ vīvō				While my father lived.

§ 324. Locative Ablative.

Carthāgĭnĕ Novā[78]	At New Carthage.
Dextrō cornū pūgnābă[78]	He fought on the right wing.
Iūdĭcum nŭmĕrō hăbentŭr[78]	They are reckoned among (in the number of) judges.
Tĭbĕrī frūmentum vēnĭt'[79]	Corn came by the Tiber.
Eādem (sc. vĭā rĕvertī[79]	To return the same way.
Grandĭs vērbīs est[80]	He has a noble style.
Tempŏrĭbŭs errāstī[80]	You have gone wrong in the dates.
Prīmā lūcĕ vĕnī[81]	Come at the dawn of day.
Hōrae mōmentō cĭtă mors vĕnĭt[81]	Quick death comes in the short space of an hour.

§ 325. Ablative with Verbs and Adjectives.

Commŏdă quĭbŭs ūtĭmŭr, lūx quā frŭĭmŭr	The advantages which we make use of, the light which we enjoy.
Rēgnō vī pŏtĭtŭr	He possesses himself of the kingdom by force.

The six Deponent Verbs (§ 152) which take the Abl. were originally Reflexive: ūtŏr I employ myself with, vēscŏr I feed myself, nītŏr I support myself with.

Urbs nūdă praesĭdĭō	A city without a garrison.
Hōc nĕquĕ cărĕō nĕc ĕgĕo	I neither lack nor want this.

ĕgĕō, indĭgĕō, impleō (rarely other Verbs) sometimes take a Gen.

Rēs cōgnĭtĭōnĕ dīgnae	(Matters worthy of being known (lit. worth knowing).
Parvō contentŭs	Content with a little.

Dīgnūs and indīgnŭs sometimes take the Gen.

§ 326.

Locative.

The Locatives denoting value are: tantī so much,quantī how much, māgnī, permāgnī, māxĭmī, plūrimi a great deal, parvī, mĭnĭmī a little, nĭhĭlĭ nought; and with Negatives, floccī, naucī a trifle, pĭlī a hair, etc.

Aequī bŏnī făcĕrĕ, bŏnī cōnsŭlĕrĕ to take in good part, are also Locatives. So probably cordī in hōc mĭhĭ cordī est I have this at heart.

§ 327. Examples of the Construction of Price.

Quantī[82] emptum est? parvī[83]	How much did it cost? A little.
Dīmĭdiō[84] mĭnōrĭs[85] cōnstat	It costs less than half.

Translation of English Prepositions.

§ 328. The English Prepositions are sometimes represented in Latin by Prepositions and sometimes simply by the Case endings.

§ 329. To and from and the Dative.—In English to or from must often be used to translate the Dative (see § 140).

But, as the Dative only indicates Relation, Prepositions must be used if actual movement to or from is meant. Thus mīttō tĭbĭ auxĭlĭum I send help to you, but mīttō nūntĭum ăd tē I send a messenger to you; vestem hŏmĭnĭ dētraxĭt he pulled the man's clothes off, but dētraxĭt ānŭlum dē dĭgĭtō he pulled the ring off his finger, turbae mē ērĭpŭĭt he rescued me from the crowd, but ex turbā mē ērĭpŭĭt he rescued me out of the crowd.

§ 330. To,from,at,in, of Place—With names of Towns and Islands small enough to be considered one place,

To	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	are epxressed by the	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	Acc.	simply
From				Abl.
At, in				Loc. (or Abl.)

See §§ 133, 149, 155, 151.

But Prepositions must be inserted with—

(1) All other Proper names: īrĕ ăd Ăsĭam to go to Asia; discēdĕrĕ ā Rhŏdănŏ to depart from the Rhone; in Nŭmĭdĭā essĕ to be in Numidia.

(2) All Common names^[86]: ā fŏrō from the Forum; in fŏro in the Forum.

So with urbs, oppĭ dum, when in Apposition to Proper names : ĭn oppĭdum Cirtam to the town Cirta; ex urbĕ Rōmā from the city of Rome; Nĕāpŏlī ĭn cĕlĕberrĭmō oppĭdō at Naples, a most populous town.

(3) A Preposition must be used if the neighbourhood of a town is meant: ăd Brundĭsĭum flexĭt ĭtĕr he bent his way towards Brundisium; Caesăr ā Gergovĭā discēssissĕ dīcebātūr 'Cæsar was said to have gone away from (the walls of) Gergovia.

§ 331 With and the Ablative.—(1) With denoting the Instrument, is expressed by the simple Ablative, Poenōs ĕquĭtātū dissĭpăt he scatters the Carthaginians with his cavalry:

(2) With meaning together with, and denoting the Accompaniment, is expressed by cum (with the Abl.), cum ĕquĭtātū vĕnĭt he comes with his cavalry, cum febrĕ rĕdĭīt he returned with a fever.

(3) With denoting the manner, is expressed by the Abl. if an epithet is added, otherwise by cum with Abl., see §321*. But it must be often translated by an Adverb, as cautē ăgĕrĕ to act with caution.

§ 332. Construction of 'opŭs est, ūsŭs est.— ŏpŭs est there is need, lit. there is work, takes a Dat. of the Person needing. The construction of the thing needed is as follows:

Either (A) ŏpŭs is the Predicate, and what is needed the Subject: nōbīs dux ŏpŭs est a leader is what we want (lit. the work for us). Hence with an Infin. of actions: glōrĭārī nōn ŏpŭs est there is no need to boast (boasting is not the work). Or (B) ŏpŭs is the Subject, and what is needed is put in the Abl. of the Instrument: glădĭō ŏpŭs est there is need of the sword (lit. work to be done by the sword). So of Actions with the Perf. Part., especially the Neut. Part, used Impersonally, prŏpĕrātō ŏpŭs est there is need to haste (lit. work to be done by hurrying). See § 368.

quĭd? in what respect? (Ace. of Extent) is often added, quĭd opŭs est glădĭō? in what is there need of a sword? quĭd ŏpŭs est factō? in what respect is there need of doing? i.e., what ought to be done?'

ŭsŭs est has the same sense and generally the same construction as ŭpĕs est, but is rare in Classical Prose.

§ 333. Construction of Interjections. (1) In addressing persons, ō! prō! are found with the Voc. (§ 130) as prō sanctĕ Iuppĭter! O divine Jupiter!

(2) In exclamations the Nom. is used: ō magnă, vīs vēritātis! O the great power of truth! prō pŭdŏr! shame!

(3) But the Object of a Strong Feeling is put in the Acc.: prō deum fĭdem! 'out on the honour of the gods! Comp. § 131*

(4) vae! takes a Dat. of Person affected: vae victīs! woe to the conquered! So ei! in ei mihi ah me!

Adjectives, etc., as Nouns.

§ 334. Masculine Adjectives, Participles, and Pronouns denote Persons in general.

Omnĭă tī̆mĭdum terrent	Everything frightens a coward.
Audentēs fortūnă 'iŭvăt	Fortune aids the bold.
Doctī ălĭă (§ 335) cēnsent	The learned think otherwise.

The Nom. Sing, of Adjectives is rarely so used.

§ 335. Neuter Adjectives and Pronouns can be used of everything that may be regarded as a thing. Thus the Singular may express a quantity, an abstract quality, etc., the Plural, parts, circumstances, etc.

Multum frūraentī, plūs vīnī	Much corn, more wine.
Qŭid pulchrō pulchtĭŭs?	'What is more beautiful than beauty?
Adversă omnēs mănent	Adversities wait for all.
Montĭum altă, vastă terrārum	The heights of the mountains, the waste places of the earth.

The Neut. Adj. cannot be used if it would be ambiguous. Thus we cannot say laetŭs ĭn trīstĭbŭs ĕrăt he was joyful in mournful circumstances; for ĭn trīstĭbus might mean among sorrowful men. We must say ĭn trīstĭbŭs rēbŭs.

The Acc. of Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives can be used when Nouns are not admissible (see §§ 132, 453, 454).

§ 336. Many English Nouns, however, denoting position or quantity, are rendered by an Adjective in Latin.

Summŭs mons	The top of the mountain.
In campō mĕdĭō	In the middle of the plain.
Rĕlĭquŭs exercĭtŭs	The rest of the army.
Āversă chartă	The back of the paper.

§ 337. Comparison.—(1) Where two qualities in the same person or thing are compared the Adjectives (or Adverbs) which express them are often both put in the Comparative: cōntiō grātiŏr quam vēriŏr a speech more true than pleasant; but also (as Eng.) măgis grātă quam vēră.

(2) plūs, amplius more, minus less, are often used without quam: plūs decem pedēs more than ten feet.

---

PRONOUNS.

§ 338. sē himself , herself or itself; themselves; oneself and sŭŭs his, her, or its own; their own; one's own, are Reflexive Pronouns, and always refer to a Subject.

This Subject (which is always of the Third Person) is— {a) Usually the Subject of the Sentence (or Clause): dē turrī sŭā sē prōiēcit he threw himself from his own tower; scĕlŭs est mortem sĭbĭ cōnscire it is a crime to compass one's own death.

(b) Sometimes, if there is no ambiguity, an important word in the sentence: Hannĭbălem sŭī cīvēs ā cīvĭtātĕ ēiēcērunt his own fellow-citizens expelled Hannibal from the state; sŭum cuiquĕ reddāmus 'let us give each man his own.

(c) In Dependent sentences sē and sŭŭs may refer to the subject of the Principal sentence, especially in Final sentences and in Indirect Narrative. They are then translated in English by him, her, etc. ōrant Caesărem ŭt sĭbĭ subvĕnĭant they implore Cæsar to help them.

In other cases he, him, his, etc., are to be rendered by ĭs or illĕ {§ 340).

§ 339. ipsĕ self, is used of all persons. It generally agrees with the word it emphasises : nōn ĕgŏ ĕī sed sĭbĭ ipsĕ nŏcŭĭt I did not injure him but he himself; mĭsĕret mē nōn vestrī sĕd mĕī ipsīŭs I do not pity you but myself; ipsĕ vĕnĭt he comes of himself; hŏmo ipsĕ est it is the very man.

§ 340. Demonstrative Pronouns.—The following point out with emphasis:

hīc this (near me)	corresponding to	the	First Person.
istĕ that (near you)	„	„	Second Person,
illĕ that (yonder)	„	„	Third Person.

hīc is often used of what is mentioned last; illĕ of what has been mentioned before it, and sometimes of what is going to be mentioned.

illĕ often expresses approval or surprise; istĕ dislike or contempt.

ĭs, he, that, is quite unemphatic, and is used to avoid repeating a Noun.

Nĭhĭl scĭŏ dē istā rē; hunc rŏgā	I nothing of that matter; ask him.
Illum lĭbrun vŏlō	That is the book I want.
Hīc ĕquĕs, illĕ pŭgil	The one {this one) a rider, the other (that one) a boxer.
Sŏphŏclēs illĕ	The well-known Sophocles.
Istĕ tŭus nātŭs	Your fine son.
redde ĕum lĭrum quem	Restore the book you took away.
Māngă urbs ĕăquĕ clāră	A great city and a famous one.
Urbs parvă illă quĭdem sĕd cĕlĕberrĭmă	A small city certainly, but very populous.

§ 341. Indefinite Pronouns.—The Latin Indefinite Pronouns do not correspond to the English, and their usages can only be fully learned frorn reading.

ălĭquĭs refers to a quite indefinite person or thing: someone, some; dīxĕrĭt ălĭquĭs someone may say.

It is only to be used in Positive expressions, and sometimes expresses considerable emphasis: sēsē ălĭquem crēdēns 'thinking himself somebody.

quĭs is also quite indefinite, but entirely without emphasis: someone, anyone, some, any. It is frequent after sī, nē, num? etc., and can never stand first in a sentence.

quispiam does not differ essentially from ăliquĭs, but it never indicates importance.

quīdam, certain, a certain one, of definite persons or things that we do not mention more particularly: quidam rhĕtŏr a certain rhetorician.

quĭdam is often used with Nouns for a kind of: tĭmĭdĭtās quaedam ingĕnŭa a kind of generous timidity.

nescĭŏ quĭs expresses indifference. It is someone, I don't know who.

Sī quĭs haec dīcĭt, mentītŭr	'If this is said, it is a lie.
Sī ălĭquĭs haec dīcĭt mentītŭr	If anyone says this, he lies.
Rŏgātŭs haec ā quōdam nĭhĭl respondit	When asked this by somebody, he made no answer.
In turbā ăb ălĭquō interfectŭs est	He was killed in the crowd by somebody or other.
Quīdam ē servīs tŭīs mē vulnĕrāvĭt	One of your slaves has wounded me.
Clōdĭŭs quīdam	A certain Clodius.
Clōdĭŭs nescĭŏ quĭs	A certain Clodius (contemptuous).

§ 342. The following refer to Number only:

ălĭquŏt several
nōn nēmo (as Noun), not no-one, i.e. one or two. nōn nūllŭs (Adj.), not none, some at least. nōn nĭhĭl something, somewhat (generally as Adv.).

Alĭquŏt servī	Several slaves.
Nōn nūllă pars mīlĭtum	A certain part of the troop.
Nōn nĭhĭl tĭmĕō	I am somewhat afraid.

§ 343. The following are only used in sentences which contain a Negative, or imply one (quasi-Negative sentences^[87]):

quisquam (Noun) anyone (at all).
ūllus (Adj.) any (at all).

Nĭ|hĭl quemquam laedō	I do no harm to anyone.
Num ūllă rēs ătrōcĭŏr fŭit?	Has there been anything more dreadful

§ 344. If anyone means anyone, whatever, quīvīs or quīlĭbĕt is used: ēlīgŭ quemvīs choose anyone you please.

§ 345. Latin uses different Pronouns to express one of two and one of several.

Referring to two.		Referring to several.
ŭter?	which?	quis?	which? who?
ŭterquĕ	each, both.	quisquĕ	each of several.
ŭtercumquĕ	whichever.	quīcumquĕ	whoever.
ŭtervīs	whichever you please.	quīvīs	which you please.
altĕr	the other.	ălĭŭs	another.
neutĕr	neither.	nēmō̆	none, no one.
altĕrŭtĕr	one or the other.

Hōrum hŏmĭnum ŭtrum laudās? ŭtrumque	Which of these men do you praise ? Both.
Utrumvīs ĕlĭgē; altĕram mĭhĭ hăbēbō	Choose which you please. I will have the other myself.
Altĕr altĕrī invĭdent	They envy one another.
Centum mīlĭtēs ălĭus sŭpĕr ălĭum corrŭērunt	A hundred soldiers fell, one upon another.

§ 346. One Another. "One another," ",,each other," are also expressed by intĕr with sē, nōs, vōs, as, inter sē dīlĭgunt they love one another, or sometimes by repeating the noun, as nēmo hŏmĭnem hŏmo āgnōvit no man recognised another.

§ 347. quisquĕis each one, each. Following Superlatives and Ordinal Adjectives it makes the expression general.

Optĭmŭs quisquĕ civĭs	The best citizens.
Tertiō quōque verbo	At every third word.
Prīmō quōquĕ dĭē	On the first day possible.

If each means each one taken singly, singŭlī must be used: singŭlĭ singŭlōrum dĕōrum săcerdōtēs sunt there is one priest to each god;' crēscĭt in dĭēs singŭlōs hostĭum nŭmĕrŭs the number of the enemy grows each (or every) day.

Co-ordinate Conjunctions and Adverbs.

§ 348. Co-ordinate Conjunctions are used to join similar (Co-ordinate) words and sentences.

But very often no conjunction is used, and the connexion is only shown by the sense: ībō rĕdībō I shall go (and) return; Achillēs impĭgĕr irācundŭs ĭnexōrābĭlĭs ācĕr Achilles restless, passionate, implacable (and) fierce; vivŭs culpŏr, mortŭŭs laudābŏr I-am-blamed-while-alive,(but) I-shall-be-praised when-dead.

§ 349. Copulative Conjunctions introduce words or sentences which are to be added to what precedes, and correspond to the English and. They are:

et (the usual word) vĭr ĕt mŭlĭĕr a man and a woman.

-quĕ, always appended to a word. It couples more closely than ĕt : vĭr mŭlĭerquĕ a man and a woman too.

atquĕ (āc only before consonants) emphasise the second member : vĭr atquĕ mŭlĭĕr a man and a woman besides.

§ 350. Both . . and is expressed by ĕt . . ĕt. Sometimes qŭe . . . ĕt (or -quĕ . . . -quĕ) are used to couple words, and ĕt . . . -qĕe to couple sentences.

In coupling several words, it is usual to omit the conjunction with all or to insert it with all. But -quĕ is sometimes used with the last word like and in English.

Clārŭs fortūnā ŏpĭbŭs fĭd	Illustrious for his fortune, his wealth, and his trustworthiness.
Clārŭs fortūnā ĕt ŏpibŭs ĕt fĭdē
Clārŭs fortūna ŏpĭbŭs fĭdēquĕ
Hŏmo imprŏbŭs ĕt audāx	A bold, bad man.
Many powerful men.

§351. Disjunctive Conjunctions introduce some word or sentence which is to be distinguished from what precedes.

They correspond to the English or. aut is used where it is important to insist on the difference; vĕl and -vĕ (always appended to a word) are used where it is not important to insist on the difference; sīvĕ (or seu, only used before consonants) is used chiefly to correct what has preceded, and is generally followed by pŏtĭŭs.

Either ... or is expressed by doubling the conjunctions : aut . . . aut, vĕl . . . vĕl, (in poetry -vĕ . . -vĕ), sīvĕ (seu) . . . sīvĕ (seu).

In poetry aut, vel, -vĕ, are used with little difference.

§ 352. Adversative Conjunctions introduce something opposed to what precedes:

{a) Opposition is ordinarily marked by sĕd (sĕt): nōn hŏmŏ sĕd fĕră not a man but a beast.

cētĕrum is similar, and 'vērum (lit. in point of fact), which is somewhat stronger.

(b) Emphatic opposition is marked by ăt: multum ōrātŏr prōdest, ăt plūs impĕrātŏr an orator is of great service, but a general of more.

{c) Weak opposition or simple difference is marked by *autem^[88]: māgnēs ferrum ăd sē trăhĭt, rătĭōnem autem adferrĕ nōn possŭmŭs the magnet draws iron to itself but we cannot assign a reason.

*vērō^[88] (lit. in truth) is similar to autem, but emphasises the previous word.

atquī but still, is chiefly used in argument,

ast but is poetical.

Other Adversative Conjunctions are tămĕn yet, with at tămĕn, sed tămĕn, vērum tămĕn but yet.

Note that some Conjunctions, which are generally Subordinate, are sometimes used like the above. So quam-quam, etsī, like Eng. though in the sense of and yet. quamquam, etsī, and quamvĭs are also used with single words: perfĭdă, sed quamvīs perfĭdă, cāră tămen untrue, but though untrue, beloved still.

§ 353. Negative Conjunctions.—These are nĕquĕ or nĕc, and neve or neu. For their use see § 209.

Sometimes a Positive expression is joined to a Negative one. In this case English generally uses an Adversative Conjunction, but Latin a Copulative one: nĕc crīmĭnă, prŏbăt ĕt iūdĭcēs īnsectătŭr he does not establish the charges, but attacks the judges.

§ 354. The Adverb quīn.—The quīn in Principal sentences properly means how not? and is used in

(1) Urgent Commands or Exhortations with the Indicative^[89]: quin is? why don't you go? quīn ĕquōs cōnscendĭmus come, let us mount our horses.

(2) Startling or Emphatic Statements, Eng. why, nay: nōn iam hortōr tē ut dŏmum rĕdeās; quīn hinc ipse ēvŏlācre cŭpiō I no longer urge you to return home , why, I am eager to fly hence myself!

This quīn is compounded of quī how? (as in quī fit how does it happen?) and nĕ not (as in nĕ-quĕ), and is different from the quīn used in Dependent Sentences.

THE VERB.

§ 355. Indefinite Second Person.—This is used:

(1) In Statements: pŭtēs one would think, § 165 (d).

(2) In Exhortations: fortūnā sī adsĭt nē ăbūtārĕ if fortune be present, we should not misuse it.

(3} In Dependent Sentences: nōn tūtum est quŏd ămēs laudārĕ it is not safe to praise what one loves.

§ 356. The Passive Voice.

Ultĭmus rŏgor sententiam	I am asked my opinion last.
Tōtum diem ā vōbīs vexor	I am annoyed by you people the whole day.
Vult sĭbĭ quisquĕ crēdī	Each wishes to be believed.

Sometimes, especially in poets, the Ace. of Extent (Space, Time, Sphere, § 132) is made the Subject of the Passive Verb.: tōtă mĭhī dormītŭr hĭemps (= tōtam hĭĕmem dormiō) I sleep all the winter.

§ 357. Verbs without Passive.—These are chiefly Deponent. The Passive is supplied either (a) by phrases with Verbal Nouns, as admīrāri admire, admīrātiōnī (Pred. Dat.) essĕ be admired, suspĭcārī suspect, in suspīciōnem vĕnīre (come to) be suspected; or. (b) by other Verbs of allied meaning, as frŭi use, enjoy, Pass, percĭpī. For the Passive of perdĕre, vēndĕre, see page 139, n.⁷ făcĕre has Pass, fĭĕri, except in compounds as effĭcī.

The Gerund and Gerundive.

§ 358. The Gerund is a Verbal Noun governing the same case as the Verb from which it comes.

Except in the meaning of obligation (§ 360) it has no Nominative, the Infinitive being used instead. Thus: currĕrĕ running, G. currendī of running. [Compare § 203 (A)].

Trīstĕ est nōmĕn ipsum cărendi	The mere name of wanting is odious.
Audendō atquĕ ăgendō rēs Rōmānă crēvĭt	The fortunes of Rome grew by doing and daring.
Ad indulgendum īrae prōclīĭŏr	Too apt to indulge in anger.

§ 359. In place of the Gerund with a Direct Accusative, the Gerundive is generally used; but a Gen. (sometimes an Abl.) of the Gerund is retained if the construction is made clearer thereby.

Cōnsŭl plācandīs dīs dăt operam (=plācandō deōs)	The consul turns his attention to appeasing the gods.
Prŏfectŭs ăd sĕpĕliendōs eōs quī cĕcĭdĕrant	Having set out to bury the fallen.
A suum cuique tribuendo lex Graece dicta est	Law is so called in Greek from assigning eachman his own.

The Gerund, if in the Genitive itself, has, very rarely, its object in the Genitive. In Cic. Phil. V. 3, all the possible constructions are found: ăgĭtŭr vitrum M. Antōniō făcultās dētŭr caedis faciendae bŏnōrum, ăgrōrum sŭīs lătrōnĭbus condōnandi, pŏpŭlum Rōmanum servĭtūtĕ opprĭmendi, etc. the question is whether Marcus Antonius should be given the opportunity of making a massacre of the respectable classes, of presenting lands to his brigands, of crushing the Roman people into slavery, etc.

The Gerund of Intransitive Verbs and the Gerundive of Transitive Verbs are used in the Nominative to express Obligation. In indirect construction the Nom. becomes Acc.

Audendum atquĕ ăgendum	We must do and dare.
Praepŏnendă est dīvĭtĭīs glōrĭă	Glory must be putbeforeriches.
Vĭdĕō praepōnendam essĕ dīvĭtīs glōrĭam	I see that glory must be put before riches.

In old Latin the Gerund of Transitive Verbs is sometimes used with the Ace.: poenās in mortĕ tĭmendum est we must fear punishment in (after) death. This is not to be imitated.

§ 361. The Subject of the Action of the Gerund or Gerundive is sometimes put in the Abl with ăb instead of the Dat.

Cīvĭbŭs ā vōbis cōnsŭlendum

You must consult the interests of the citizens.

If vōbīs had been used, it might also have meant the citizens must consult your interests.

§ 362. The Gerundive is often used as an attribute of what must be done or (in Negative and Quasi-Negative expressions) of what may be done.

Sacră Bŏnae mărĭbus nōn ădĕundă Dĕae	The rites of Bona Dea not to be approached by males.
Vix tŏlĕrandum frīgŭs	Cold hardly to be endured.

§ 363. Only Transitive Verbs which take a Direct Acc. have a Gerundive, ūtendus is found because ūtŏr once took an Acc.; so frŭendŭs, pŏtiundŭs, etc. paenĭtendŭs to be regretted, pŭdendŭs to be ashamed of, are irregularities.

Participles.

§ 364. As already said, the Participles express time relative to that of the leading Verb.

The Present Participle expresses an action still going on. The Perfect expresses an action that is finished; but it is often to be translated by an English Present Participle, the English idiom being less exact than the Latin.

Mŏrĭēns intŭs iăcĕt; mortŭŭs effĕrētŭr	A He lies dying within; when he has died, he will be carried out.
Tūtum rătŭs rĕversŭs sum	Thinking it safe, I returned.
Rŏgātŭs quĭs essĕt nescīrĕ sē dīxĭt	Being asked who he was, he said "I don't know."

§ 365. There being no Present Participle Passive, its place is supplied by using a Dependent Sentence.

Cum ā Cătōnĕ laudābăr, rĕprĕhendī mē ā cētĕrīs făcĭlĕ pătĭēbăr

When praised by Cato, I readily submitted to being censured by the rest.}}

§ 366. There being no Perfect Participle Active except in Deponent Verbs, either (a) A Dependent sentence, or
(b) The Perfect Participle Passive is used instead.

(a) Caesăr, postquam vēnĭt, Rhēnum trānsĭrĕ cōnstĭtŭit	Cæsar, having arrived, decided to cross the Rhine.
(b) Manĭŭs Galium caesum torquĕ spŏlĭāvĭt	Having killed the Gaul,Manilus stripped him of his chain.

§ 367. The Participle and its Noun often go so closely together as to form one idea, which is expressed in English by means of a Verbal Noun.

Occīsŭs Caesăr multīs pessĭmum făcĭnŭs vĭdēbātŭr	The killing of Cæsar (lit. Cæser killed) seemed to many a very wicked deed.
Iniūstī ŏnĕrĭs impŏsĭtī tŭă culpă est, mĕă rĕceptī	The fault of imposing an excessive burden is yours, that of taking it up is mine.
Amōrĕ dŏlōrēs pollūtō nōtūmquĕ fŭrēnsquid fēmĭnĕ possĭt[90]	Pangs from the outraging of love and the knowledge of what a frenzied woman can do.

§ 368. The Neuter Participle of the Impersonal Passive [§ 166 (c)] is similarly used: prŏpĕrātŭr haste is made, or people hasten; prŏpĕrātum the fact that haste is made, or people's having hastened.

Nōn perlĭtālum tĕnŭĕat cōnsŭlēs	The fact-that no favourable-sacrifice-had-been-offered had detained the consuls.
Summōtō cōnsŭlēs incessērunt	The consuls advanced when-a road-had-been-cleared.

§ 369. Some Adjectives and Nouns are used in the same way.

Post rēgem Nŭmam	After Numa's accession(after Numa (as) king.)
Mĭnŭit fŭrōrem vix ūnă sŏspĕs nāvĭs ăb īgnĭbus (poet.)	The saving of hardly one ship from the flames abated her madness.

§ 370. Participles may be used in place of Dependent sentences, and then require to be translated by such in English.

Ahālă Maelĭum rēgnum appĕtentem intĕrēmĭt	Ahala killed Mælius, because he was aiming at a tyranny.
Mendāci hŏmĭnī nē vērum quĭdem dīcentī crēdĭmŭs	We do not believe a liar, even if he speaks the truth.
Perdĭtis omnĭbŭs rēbŭs tămĕn ipsă virtūs sĕ sustentārĕ	Although everything is lost, still virtue can support potest itself.

§ 371. Future Participle.—The Future Participle is used in some authors to denote purpose, especially after Verbs of motion.

Nōn hōc prŏhĭbĭtūrŭs vēnī

I did not come to prevent this.

It also, sometimes, represents the Subjunctive of Imagination in the Apodosis (rarely the Protasis) of Conditional Statements, § 239.

Mīsī tĭbĭ lĭbrum, mīssurŭs etsī nōn exēgissēs

I have sent you the book, and I would have sent it, even if you had not demanded it.

---

INFINITIVE.

§ 372. Infinitive as Subject.—In prose only with Intransitive Verbs and Neuter Adjectives:

Quĭd est ălĭud quam rĕlēgātĭōnem păti?	What else is it but suffering banishment?
Alĭīs displĭcet tōtum hōc phĭlŏsŏphāri	All this philosophising displeases others.
Inūsĭtātūm est rēgem rĕum căpĭtĭs essĕ	A king's being tried on a capital charge is unusual.

The Infinitive with Quasi-impersonal Verbs like lĭcĕt, was originally a Complement: ĭcĕt mĭhĭ īrĕ was it is permitted to me to go, rather than going is permitted to me. Hence, Adjectives, etc., which refer to the subject of the Infinitive are usually in the Dat. [according to § 205 (2)], though the Ace. is found by 205 (1): bĕātō tĭbĭ essĕ licĕt it is permitted to you to be happy; tē bĕātūm essĕ lĭcĕt your being happy is permitted.

§ 373. If the Subject of the Infinitive is Indefinite, it is generally omitted. An Adjective, etc., referring to it is put in the Ace. Singular.

Făcĭnŭs est mortem sĭbĭ cōnscīrĕ	It is a crime to kill oneself.
Incŏlŭmem rĕdīrĕ lĭcĕt	One may return unhurt.

§ 374. Infinitive as Complement.—Several Verbs whose sense is incomplete have a Complement in the Infinitive referring to the action of the subject.

To Verbs of habit, inclination,
Intention, power, and obligation.
Beginning, end, and so forth, give
Construction with Infinitive.

Cŭpĭō lŏquī sĕd nōn audĕō	I wish to speak, but dare not.
Et pŏtĕs lŏquī ĕt dēbēs	You can and ought to speak.
Vincĕrĕ scĭt	He knows how to conquer.

So Quasi-Impersonal Verbs and phrases, § 167.

Flet qu|ŏ|d īrĕ nĕcessĕ est	She weeps because she must go.
Lĭcĕt antestārī?	May I call (you) to witness?
Mĭgrārĕ Vēiōs rēlĭgĭō fŭĭt	Religious scruples were felt about removing to Veii.

§ 375. Certain Transitive Verbs, chiefly of instructing and compelling, take an Infinitive of the action prescribed.

This Infinitive is retained in the Passive.

Lŭpōs ŭlŭlārĕ dŏcētō	Teach wolves to howl.
Portās ădīrĕ vĕtĭtī sunt	They were forbidden to approach the gates.

§ 376. Nominative with Infinitive in Dependent Statement.—When a Quasi-Impersonal Verb such as it is said, it is thought, would have an Inf. with Ace. after it, the construction is generally made personal, the Accusative and everything agreeing with it being put in the Nominative. So also with iŭbētŭr it is ordered, vĕtātŭr it is forbidden.

Dīcŏr essĕ fēlīx	I am said to he fortunate.
Dŏlŭs āfŭissĕ dēmōnstrābĭtŭr	'It will be shown that trickery was absent.
Iūssŭs ĕs rĕnūntiārī cōnsŭl	Orders are given for you to be proclaimed consul.

But Participles and Gerunds are rarely made personal.

Nĕgandum est essĕ dĕōs	We must deny that there are gods
Thĕŏpompum vīcisse iūdŭcātum est	It was decided that Theopompus had won.

§ 377. Rare or Poetical Uses of the Infinitive.

(1) As a Complement to Adjectives, instead of other Verbal Nouns: cŭpĭdŭs mŏrī eager to die (for mŏrĭendī); dīgnŭm lĕgī worthy to be read (for lēctū).

(2) As a Complement to Verbs of Movement, instead of the Supine in -um: pĕcŭs ēgĭt altōs vīsĕrĕ montēs he drove his herd to visit the high mountans.

(3) After Verbs of Saying, etc., with no subject expressed: Măgo id nescīrĕ dīxīt Mago said "(I) don't know that." (So especially the Future Infinitive.) In poetry, even with Adjectives, etc., in the Nominative: rettŭlĭt Āiāx essĕ Iŏvis prŏnĕpōs Ajax stated that he tvas great-grandson of Jupiter.

§ 378. Tenses of the Infinitive.

The Present Infinitive corresponds to the Present Indicative.

The Future Infinitive corresponds to the Future Indicative.

The Perfect Infinitive corresponds to the Imperfect, Perfect, or Aorist, and Pluperfect Indicative.

Present.

Dīcĭt hŏmĭnem tĭmērĕ[91] nē ā lătrōnĭbus căpĭātŭr[92]

He says " The man is afraid (tĭmĕt) he will be captured by brigands."

Perfect.

Dĭcit Cȳrum ingĕmŭissĕ[93] quŏtĭēens fĭlĭum aspexĕrĭt[94]	He says "Cyrus used to sigh(ingĕ whenever he saw his son."
Dĭcīt nūntĭum advēnissĕ[93]	He says " The messenger has come (advēnĭt).
Dīcĭt Gallōs fūgissĕ[93] ut prīmum Caesar sīgnum proelĭī dĕdĕrĭt[95]	He says " The Gauls fled (fūgērunt) as soon as Ccesar gave the signal for battle."
Dīcĭt Gallōs fŭissĕ[93] prĭsquam Cæsăr sīgnum proeĭī dĕdĕrĭt[95]	He Says "The Gauls hadfled (fūfgĕrant) before Cæsar gave the signal for battle."

Future.

Dīcĭt hŏmĭnem mŏrĭtūrum[93] nĭsĭ mĕdĭcus Zrŏpĕrĕt[96]

He says "The man will die unless the doctor makes haste."

After mĕmĭnī, mĕmŏrĭā tĕnĕō, etc., I remember, the Present Infinitive is used to represent the Imperfect and sometimes the Perfect Indicative if the event has happened within the actual knowledge of the person referred to; mĕmĭnistĭs turn, iūdĭcēs, corpŏrĭbŭs cīvĭum Tĭbĕrum complēri you remember, judges, that then the Tiber was filled with the corpses of citizens.

§ 379. Verbs of Hoping and Promising.—These take a Future Infinitive in Latin.

Spērat sē cĭtŏ ventūram	She hopes to come soon.
Iūrāvī mē haec factūrum	I swore to do this.

§ 380. Might, ought, could, etc., with Infinitive.—Notice the difference between the English and Latin idioms with these Verbs.

Pārērĕ dēbŭstī	You ought to have obeyed.
Pŏtĕrāmŭs cōgi	We could have been forced.
Hōc dīxissĕ pŏtest	He may have said this.

In order to see what is the proper tense to use in Latin, the English Defective Verbs may, might, etc., should be replaced by other Verbs which have all their tense: părērē dēbŭstī you were bound to obey; hōc dīxissĕ pŏtest it is possible that he said this.

§ 381. The Perfect Infinitive is sometimes used where Eng. has a Pres., especially after Verbs of wishing with a Negative, and in the Pass., often without essĕ. The action is usually regarded as complete, quis tē nōlit pĕrīsse? who would not wish you to die ? (to be dead),

mŏnĭtōs eōs vŏlŏ I wish to warn them.

Subjunctive in Principal Sentences.

§ 382. The Subjunctive of Desire (Negative nē) is used of events which it is desired should happen. It is used—

(1) In Wishes and Hopes (§ 189),
(2) In Request and Command (§ 189). Also—
(3) In requesting a Supposition to be made; in English grant that, allow that: nē sĭt sānē summum mălum dŏlŏr, mălum certē est allow that pain is not the greatest evil, an evil it certainly is.

§ 383. The Subjunctive of Imagination (Negative nōn) is used of events which it is thought might happen or might have happened.^[97]

The Primary Tenses refer to the Future, and are to be translated by can, might, should, or would.

The Secondary Tenses generally refer to the Past, and are to be translated by should have or would have. Sometimes they refer to the Present, and are to be translated by should or would:

1. Quĭs tē dŭbĭtĕt sĕquī? who can hesitate to follow you? quĭs dŭbĭtāssĕt Caesărem sĕqui? who could have hesitated to follow Casar?

Vĕlim hōc mĭhĭ īgnōscās I could wish you would forgive me this; māllem Rōmae essĕ I should prefer to be in Rome. So in Questions and Exclamations: quidnī memĭnerim? why should I not remember? (meaning, of course, I can), ĕgŏne ut tē interpellem? I interrupt you? (lit. how should I interrupt you?').

2. Suāsĕrim tĭbĭ ŭt tăcĕās I should advise you to be silent; făcĭlĕ persuāsissem tĭbĭ ŭt tăcērēs I could easily have persuaded you to be silent.

Ită pulchra est, dĕam pŭtes so beautiful is she, you would think her a goddess; ĭtă, pulchră ĕrăt Hĕlĕnă, dĕam pŭbtārēs so beautiful was Helen, you would have thought her a goddess. (For the Indefinite Second Person, see § 355.)

3. The Subjunctive in the Apodosis of Conditional Statements belongs here. It denotes what it is thought would happen, or would have happened, subject to certain circumstances: pulchram earn pŭtes you would think her beautiful, sī vĭdĕās if you were to see her. See § 239.

The Subjunctives in this Section are sometimes supposed to be incomplete Conditional statements : suāsĕrim I would advise you (if you were to ask my advice), vĕlim I should wish (if it were any use doing so), and so forth. The Subjunctives of the next section have been explained similarly: hōc făcĭās you would do this (if you were asked).

§ 384. By a slight change of meaning the Subjunctive is used of events which it is thought should happen or should have happened} It is thus found:

(1) In Recommendations or mild commands: hōc făcĭās you should do this; hōc nōn fēcissēs you ought not to have done this.^[98]

(2) In Questions:, quĭd ēnŭmĕrem artĭum multĭtūdĭnĕm? why should I enumerate the multitude of the arts? cum haec vĭdērem, quĭd făcĕrem? what was I to do when I saw this?

Ques. nōn argentum reddĕrem? ought I not to have returned the money (silver)? Ans. nōn reddĕres you ought not.

§ 385. Commands and Requests.—In Positive Requests besides(1) the Imperative § 186 and(2) the Subjunctive of Desire § 189, Latin writers also use forms which are properly Statements, viz. (3) the Fut. Ind., which puts the Request as something which will happen, and is thus a strong Command, as hōc făciēs you will do this; and (4) the Subjunctive of Imagination which puts it as a Recommendation only (see above). Sometimes also (5) the Request is put as a Question : quīn īs why don't you go? (§ 354). Lastly (5) certain periphrases are used, as fĕc vĕniās be sure and come.

In Negative Requests (Prohibitions) (l) the Imper. is not used in Prose, nor (2) the 2nd Person Pres. Subj. with nē except as in § 208. But (3) the Fut. Ind. with nōn is used in all persons, as hōc nōn făciēs you shall (or will) not do this. So also (4) the Subj. of Imagination in Recommendations (see above). Lastly, periphrases are found, as nōli īrĕ do not go, căvē ĕās beware of going, and (in the poets) dēsĭnĕ cease, parcĕ spare, etc., with Infinitives.

DEPENDENT SENTENCES.

The Sequence of Tenses.

§ 386. Primary Sequence.—

Ōrăt mē ŭt sĭbĭ parcam	He entreats me to spare him.
Tĭmĕō nĕ peccāvĕrīs	I fear you have done wrong (also I fear you did wrong).
Vĭdĕō quĭd factūrŭs sīs(§ 232)	I see what you will do.
Nōn effĭcĭĕt ut vĕnĭam	He will not induce me to come.
Edāmŭs ut vīvāmŭs	Let us eat to live.
Făcĭlĕ dīcam quĭd vĕlĭt	I could easily say what he wants.
Rŏgā quĭd vērē sentĭăt	Ask what he really thinks.

§ 387. Secondary Sequence.—

Ōrāvit mē ut sĭbĭ parcĕrem	He entreated me to spare him.
Timēbam nē peccassēs	I was afraid you had done wrong.
Vīdīquĭd factūrus essēs (§232)	I saw what you would do.
Nōn effēcĕrăt ŭt vĕnirem	He had not induced me to come.
Făcĭlĕ dīxissem quĭd vellĕ	I could easily said what he wanted.
Dīcĭs tē rŏgāssĕ quĭd vērē sentīrĕt	You say that you asked what he really thought.

§ 388. Note the following differences from English :

{a) The Imperfect Subjunctive in Conditional statements, even when it refers to present time [§ 242(a)], takes Secondary tenses.

Nĭsĭ ĭneptum pŭtārem, iūrārem mē ĕă sentīrĕ quae dicĕem

If I did not think it out of place, I would take an oath that I believe what I say.

(b) The Present in General Statements (§ 177) is usually changed to the Imperfect after Secondary tenses.

Dē phĭlŏsŏphĭā quantō ŏpĕrĕ expĕtendă essĕt ĭn ălĭo lĭbrō dissĕrŭimŭs

We discussed in another treatise how greatly philosophy is to be sought after.

(c) The Perfect Subjunctive, when it refers to the Future (§§ 225 (C), 240), of course takes Primary tenses.

Sī scĭĕrīs vellĕ ălĭquem imprūdentem sŭpĕr aspĭdem assīdĕrĕ, imprŏbē fēcĕrīs nĭsĭ mŏnŭĕrīs nē assīdăt

If you knew that someone was going to sit down on an asp without knowing it, you would act wickedly if you did not warn him not to sit down.

§ 389. Primary or Secondary Sequence.—

{a) Perfect Proper.

With Primary Sequence.

Taurīs nātūrā dătum est ŭt prō vĭtŭlīs contendant.	Bulls have been given the natural instinct of fighting for their calves.
Oblītŭs ĕs quĭd ĭntĭō dīxĕrim	Have you forgotten what I said at the beginning?

With Secondary Sequence.

Haec nōn ŭt vōs excĭtārem lŏcūtŭs sum	I have not said this to rouse you.
Hŏdĭē expertŭs sum quam cădūcă esset fēlīcĭtās	I have found out to-day how perishable happiness is.

(b) Historic Present.

With Secondary Sequence.

Persu|ādet Casticō ŭt rēgnum occŭpārĕt

He persuades Casticus to seize the kingly power.

With Primary Sequence.^[99]

Ubĭī ōrant ŭt sĭbĭ parcat

The Ubii implore him to spare them.

§ 390. After the Present and Future Infinitive, the Participles and other Verbals, the Sequence is determined by the leading Verb.

Spērō fŏrĕ ŭt contingăt	I hope it will happen.
Spērāvī fŏrĕ ŭt contingĕrŏt	I hoped it would happen.
Rŏgātŭs ŭbĭ sīs, quĭd respondĕās?	If you were asked where you are would you answer?
If you had been asked where you were, what would you have answered?

§ 391. The Perfect Subjunctive is sometimes found in Secondary Sequence instead of the Imperfect.

It is hardly ever so used except in Consecutive sentences, and where a single definite act is meant.

Dĭŏnȳsĭŭs ĕō factŏ sīc dŏlŭĭt nĭhĭl ŭt grăvĭŭs tŭlĕrĭt in vītā

Dionysius was so much pained at that occurrence that he took nothing more to heart in his life.

For another use of the Perf. Subj. in Secondary Sequence, see § 420.

§ 392. Apparent exceptions to the Sequence of Tenses.—These occur when it is important to denote the exact time of an action, and a false impression would be conveyed if it were referred to the time of the leading Verb.

Vĭdĕō causās essĕ permultās quae istum impellĕrent	I see there were (at that time) many causes to urge him on.
Haec quantum īn prōvinciā vălĕant vellem expertus essem	I wish I had learned from experience how much weight these things have in a province.
Sĭcĭlĭam Verrēs per trĭennĭum ĭtă vexāvĭt ŭt ĕă resĭtĭī ĭn antīquum stătum nūllō mŏdō possĭt	Verres so persecuted Sicily for three years that it cannot possibly now be restored to its original condition.

The Subjunctive Mood.

§ 393. Consecutive Sentences.—These denote the consequence or result of an action. This may be either— (a) An Action Caused, or
(b) An Action Prevented.

(a) An Action caused is expressed by ŭt: sōl efficit ŭt omnĭă flōrĕant the sun makes all things bloom; quĭs tam dēmēns ŭt sŭa vŏluntātĕ maerĕăt? who is so senseless as to grieve of his own choice?

(b) An Action Prevented is expressed:

By ŭt . . nōn, after a Positive sentence: ĭtă mĭsĕr est ŭt mortem nōn tĭmĕăt he is so wretched that he does not fear death.

By ŭt . . nōn or quīn, after a Negative or quasi-Negative one: nēmo ădĕō fĕrĕs est ŭt nōn mītescĕrĕ possĭt no one is so wild that he cannot be civilised, făcĕrĕ nōn possum quīn cottīdĭē ad tē littĕrās mīttam I cannot help sending you a letter every day (lit. I cannot act so as not to, etc.).

nē and ŭt nē are sometimes used in Consecutive as well as in Final sentences.

§ 394. Verbs of Preventing.——Verbs of Preventing and Declining take nē; Verbs of Preventing also quō mĭnŭs.

impĕdĭŏr nē {also quō mĭnus) plūră dīcam I am hindered from saying more (so that I should say no more); nē sententiam dīcĕrĕt rĕcūsāvĭt he refused to pronounce an opinion; căvĕ nē tĭtŭbēs take care that you do not stumble.

After Negative or quasi-Negative sentences, quīn may be used; nōn rĕcūsō quīn crīmĭnĭbŭs respondĕam I do not refuse to answer the charges.

§ 395. Final Sentences.—These denote the purpose of an action. The purpose may be either—

(a) An Action to be Caused, or
(b) An Action to be Prevented.

{a) An Action to be caused is introduced by ŭt: ēssĕ ŏportĕt ŭt vīvās one ought to eat to live.

{b) An Action to be prevented is introduced by nē, or sometimes by ŭt . . nē: prŏpĕrā nē vāpŭles make haste that you may not be thrashed; quid vis nōbis dăre ŭt scy̆phi istī abs tē nē aufĕrantur? what are you willing to give me that your cups may not be taken from you?

Verbs of Requesting.—Verbs of Ordering, Entreating, and Advising are followed—

By ŭt' of what it, is requested should happen: pĕtō ā tē ŭt aurum reddăs 'I ask you to return the gold.

By nē (sometimes ut . . ne) of what it is requested should not happen: mŏnŭī tē nē uxōrem dūcĕrēs I warned you not to marry, impĕtrant ut nē iūrent they obtain their request not to take the oath.

iŭbeō order, usually, and vĕtō order not, forbid, take the Inf.

§ 397. Verbs of Fearing.—Verbs of fearing' are followed—

By nē that (or lest), of what it is feared may happen.

By nē . . . nōn that (or lest) . . not, of what it is feared may not happen.

Tĭmĕō nē mĭhĭ īrāscārĭs	I fear that you will be angry with me.
Tĭmŭī nē mĭhĭ nōn īgnōscĕrēs	I feared that you would not pardon me.

After Positive sentences vĕrĕŏr (and sometimes mĕtŭō, tĭmĕō) is found with ŭt instead of nē . . . nōn: vĕrĕŏr ŭt mē dīlĭgas I am afraid that you do not love me.

§ 398. Subjunctive without a Conjunction.—The Simple Subjunctive is found after some Verbs of Requesting (or expressing a Wish), especially in the 1st Pers. Sing, as suādeō cēnēmus I suggest we have dinner; cēnseō dēsistāt I think he should stop; vŏlŏ respondeās I wish you would answer; and also after some Quasi-Impersonals as ŏportet ăbeam it is right I should go. See § 452 (2).

In this use the Subjunctive originally formed a separate sentence, cēnsēo dēsistat meaning I think; let him stop. So in the periphrastic Imperatives fac. vĕniās mind, you come, căvĕ ĕās beware, you may go (i.e. of going). See § 385.

§ 399. Subjunctive of Dependent Statement.—For examples of this see under Indirect Quotation (§ 249, also § 42 2). Two special cases of it require attention.

(1) It is used after Verbs which imply saying or thinking, such as laudō I praise, culpō I blame, etc.; culpāvĭt tē quŏd hōc fēcissēs he blamed you because (as he said) you did this.

(2) It is sometimes, though rarely, used when an idea of saying or thinking is involved in the context: Fuscŭs Aristĭŭs occurrit, mĭhĭ cārŭs ĕt ilium quī pulchrē nōsset Fuscus Aristius runs up, a dear friend of mine, and one who (I was sure) knew that man well.

Subjunctive and Indicative.

The following sections show what difference the use of the Subjunctive or the Indicative makes in the meaning of each kind of Dependent Sentence. From § 400 to § 412 Subjunctive usages are printed in italics, and Indicative usages in ordinary type.

§ 400. Relative Sentences.—The Subjunctive is used in the following kinds of Relative Sentences:

(a) When the Relative involves an idea of purpose' (Eng. "to" with Infinitive): scrībēbăt ōrātiōnēs quăs ăliī dīcĕrent "He wrote speeches for other people to deliver (which other people were to deliver)."

(b) Where an idea of result is involved (Eng. " such that" "such as to"): nōn ĭs est quī hīs rēbŭs ūtātur "He is not such a person as would use these things" (not a person to use these things),

The Indicative would show the fact without any such notion of result: scrībēbăt ōratiōnēs quās ălĭī dīcēbant " He wrote speeches which other persons delivered," or "and other persons delivered them"; nōn ĭs est quī hīs rēbŭs ūtĭtur "He is not the man who uses these things."

(c) The Subjunctive is used when a notion of character or class is involved: māiōrā dēlīguērunt quam quĭbŭs īgnōscam "They have committed offences greater than I pardon" (too great for me to pardon).

Hence the Subjunctive is also used with quippĕ quī. So with est quī, sunt quī: there is a person to—, there are persons to—; sunt quī dīcant "some people say;" and with Negatives: nēmo est quīdicat "there is no one to say," nēmo est quī nōn dīcat, "there is no one not to say" (who does not say).

The Indicative may be used if definite particular things are referred to. So Horace says of riches: sunt quī nōn hăbĕant, est quī nōn cūrăt hăbērĕ "Some people have them not, there is one person" (meaning himself) "who does not care to have them."

The Subjunctive is also used—

(d) With quī quĭdem, quī mŏdŏ, when the class or character of anything limits a previous assertion: omnĭum ōrātōrum quōs quĭdem ĕgŏ cōgnbvĕrim ăciūtĭssĭmŭs est Sertōrĭus "Of all the speakers —of such, that is to say, as I know—Sertorius is the sharpest;" nēmō servŭs quī mŏdŏ tŏlĕrābĭlĭ condĭcĭōnĕ sĭt servĭtūtĭs " No slave who is " (that is to say, 'no slave provided he be ') in a tolerable state of slavery."

The Indicative is used in limitations where the reference is to definite particular persons or things : omnĭum ōrātōrum quī quĭdem nunc sunt " Of all the orators, that is to say, of the present day." The Subjunctive is used—

{e) When the Relative involves an idea of cause: fŭĭt mirĭfĭcā vĭgĭlantĭa quī suō tōtō cōnsŭlatŭ somnum nōn vlderit "He has shown marvellous wakefulness, since he has not seen sleep (i.e., slept a wink) in his entire consulship." So, ŭt quĭ, quippĕ quī, utpŏte quī.

The Indicative is used whenever we do not wish to imply that one event is the cause of the other, but simply to state them side by side: stultē fēcī quī ămīcum āmīsī "I have acted foolishly—I who have lost my friend."

The Indicative is also used in parenthetical sentences with qui "such": quā prūdentĭā ĕs, nĭhĭl tē fŭgĭĕt " Such is your sagacity, nothing will escape you."

In these parenthetical sentences, we might have ĭs for qui.

§ 401. Temporal Sentences.—The Subjunctive is used with Temporal Conjunctions of events expected and intended to occur.

With dum "until:" exspectātĕ dum dictātŏr fīăt " Wait till a dictator can be appointed;" reŭs, dum cōnsŭlĕrentŭr pătrēs, in fŏrō rĕtentŭs ĕst "The accused was detained in the Forum to allow time for the Senators to be consulted."

With ante quam, prĭŭs quam 'before that, ' 'before:' collem prĭŭs quam sentĭātŭr commūnĭt" He fortifies the hill before he can be perceived;" antĕ quam vĕniăt littĕrās mīttĕt "Before coming, he will write."

The Subjunctive is sometimes used to express Purpose: (1) with dōnĕc, guoăd until, (2) with dum while: rēx dum rĕcēns terror essĕt, exercĭtum ad urbem mīsĭt "The king sent an army to the city zuhile the panic was (should be) fresh."

Sometimes the Subjunctive is used after dōnĕc, antĕ quavi, prĭus quam, without affecting the sense. (Roby, Lat. Gram., Vol. II., §§ 1670, 1674.)

§ 402. Causal Sentences.—The Indicative is used with quŏd, quĭă 'because,' quŏniam, quandō 'since,' sĭ quĭdem 'if,' ' as is the case,' ' since,' quātĕnŭs 'inasmuch as,' if they simply give the real cause: dŏlĕt mĭhĭ quŏd stŏmăchārĭs "I am pained because you are angry."

But the Subjunctive is used with them if they give the alleged reason^[100] (§ 216): Sōcrătēs accūsātŭs est quŏd iŭventūtēm corrumperet " Socrates was -accused of corrupting {on the alleged ground that he corrupted) the youth."

Hence it is used after non: nōn idcircō dīmīsī quŏd ĕīs suscēnsērem sĕd quŏd ĕĕōrum mē suppŭdēbăt " I did not send them away because I was annoyed with them (supposed reason, Subj.), but because I was somewhat ashamed of them " (real reason, Ind.).

§ 403. Concessive Sentences.—The Indicative or Subjunctive is used according to the meaning of the conjunction.

1. quamquam takes the Indicative in the best Latin: quamquam festinās, nōn est mŏră longă "Though you are in haste, it is not a long delay."

Quamquam properly means howsoever, as quisquīs means whosoever, and follows the rule of § 405.

If however it refers to an imagined case, the Subjunctive is used according to ('A) § 187: quamquam ĕpŭlis cărĕăt sĕnectūs "Although old age may be without its feasts."

2. etsī "even if," "although," takes the Indicative of facts: gaudĕŏ etsī nĭhĭl scĭo quŏd gaudĕam " I am glad, though I know no reason why I should be glad."

But it takes the Subjunctive of imaginations: etsī ălĭquĭd adiectum nŭmĕrō sĭt, māgnă certē caedēs fŭĭt"Though something may have been added to the number, it was certainly a great slaughter."

3. quamvīs, lĭcĕt, and ŭt 'supposing that' take the Subjunctive: quamvĭs sint sŭb ăquā, sŭb ăquā mălĕ dicĕrĕ temptant "Although they are under the water, under the water they try to revile," ut dēsint vīrēs, tămĕn est laudandă vŏluntăs "Though strength fail, yet good will is to be praised."

The Subjunctive is required to give the Concessive sense: quamvīs dīcās is properly "you may say how you like," lĭcet dīcās is "it is allowed, you may say."

§ 404. The poets sometimes use quamvls with the Ind. Conversely quamquam sometimes appears in later writers with the Subj. where we expect the Ind.

§ 405. Indicative of Indefinite Frequency.—The best Latin writers use the Indicative of events frequently occurring, corresponding to the English ever. So with quis-quĭs, quīcumque ' whoever,' qui (=quisquĕs); nōn bĕne ŏlet quī bĕnĕ sempĕr olet " He does not smell well who always smells well." With sī 'if ever'; stŏmăchābātur sĕnex sī quid aspĕrius dīxeram " The old man used to get angry if I (had) said anything, rather harsh."

Some writers, however; use the Subj.: quenicumqiĕ lictor prēndissĕt, trĭbūnŭs mīttī iŭhēbăt "Whotnever the lictor (had) arrested, the tribune ordered to be let go."

Construction of certain Conjunctions.

§ 406. Ut with the Indicative.—ŭt takes the Indicative when it means—

(a) As: ŭt sēmentem fēcĕrĭs (Fut. Perf.), ĭtă. mĕtēs "As you have sowed, so will you reap." Hence idiomatically (of facts):

(b) Considering that, taking into account: hī ŭt pŏbpŭlĭ Rōmānī aetās est, sĕnēs sunt " Considering the age of the Roman people, these are ancients."

(c) While, when followed by sīc, ĭtă: ŭt quĭēs certāmĭnum ĕrăt, ĭtă, nōn ăb appărātū ŏpĕrum cēssātum est "Though there was a cessation of hostilities, still they did not relax the prosecution of the (siege) works."

(d) As Soon as: ut vēni surrexit "He rose when I came."

§ 407. Ut with the Subjunctive.—It takes the Subjunctive when used—

(a) In a Consecutive sense, 'so that,' § 393.

(b) In a Final sense, 'in order that,' § 395.

(c) In a Concessive sense, 'granting that,' § 403 (3).

(d) After vĕrĕŏr 'I fear,' etc., § 397.

(e) In indignant surprise, see example in § 383 (1).

§ 408. Cum with the Indicative.—Cum (quom) takes the Indicative when it means—

(a) When (in the sense of " at the time when "); longum illŭd tempŭs cum nōn ĕrō "That long time when I shall be no more," pārŭĭt cum nĕcesse ĕrăt " He obeyed when it was necessary."

(b) Since (= "since the time when"); centum annī sunt cum dictātŏr fŭ ĭbt "It is one hundred years since he was dictator."

(c) Whenever (in the best Latin, compare § 405): cum ad vīllam vēnī, nĭhĭl ăgĕrĕ mē dēlectăt "Whenever I come to my country house, it pleases me to do nothing."

§ 409. Cum with the Subjunctive.—It takes the Subjunctive when it means—

(a) When, and is used with the Imperfect and Pluperfect to mark the time of an action: Zēnōnem cum Athēnīs essem, audĭēbam frĕquentĕr "I frequently heard Zeno (lecture) when I was at Athens."

The use of the Subjunctive often implies a Causal connexion between the Principal and Dependent clause; so the example above might mean "Being at Athens I went to Zeno's lectures." The Subj. is rarely used when all idea of Cause, Consequence, or Opposition is out of the question.

(b) At a time when (Consecutive): ĭd saecŭlum cum iam plēna Graecĭă pŏētārum essĕt "An age when Greece %vas already full of poets."

(c) Since: quae cum ĭtă sint, pērgĕ "Since these things are so, proceed."

(d) Notwithstanding that, although: Phōcīōn semper fŭĭt paupĕr, cum divĭtĭssĭmŭs essĕ possĕt "Phocion remained always poor, though he could have been very rich."

Note.—The original sense of cum was purely Temporal, when; and it took the Indicative. Its use with the Subjunctive is due to the growth of a closer connexion between the two clauses, and so the Subjunctive belongs to the type (B) § 187.

§ 410. Dum with the Indicative.—Dum takes the Indicative if its meaning is purely Temporal.

(a) While, usually with the Present, whatever the time of the Principal Clause: incĭdĭt in Scyllam dum vult vītāre Chărybdim "He fell into Scylla while desiring to avoid Charybdis."

(b) So long as, with the Present, the Imperfect (sometimes the Perfect), and the Future, according to the time of the Principal Clause: dum ănĭmă est, spēs est " So long as there is life there is hope."

(c) Until, with the Perfect of Past time and the Future Perfect of Future time : mānsĭt in cōnsĭlĭō dum sĕnātus dīmīssŭs est "He persisted in his plan until the senate broke up,"

Dum (while) is used with the Present (loosely) of events which will happen soon: mănēbō dum exĭt " I will wait till he comes out " (lit. "while he is coming out").

§ 411. Dum with the Subjunctive.—"Dum. is used with the Subjunctive:

(a) In sense of 'until' ivhen purpose is implied, § 401.

(b) Sometimes in sense of 'while' when purpose is implied, § 401*.

(c) When it means 'so long as' in a Concessive sense, 'provided that': ōdĕrint dum mĕtŭant "Let them hate so long as they fear." So dum mŏdŏ.

§ 412. quīn In Dependent Sentences^[101] takes the Subjunctive. It is properly Consecutive, 'so that . . . not,' and is only to be used when the Principal Sentence is Negative or quasi-Negative.

(a) After Negative Pronouns and Adverbs and Negative expressions generally: nēmō fŭĭt mīlĭtum quīn vulnĕrārētūr "There was not one of the soldiers but was wounded"; numqtiam tarn mălĕ est Sĭcŭlīs quīn ălĭquĭd făcētē dĭcant "The Sicilians are never in such trouble but they can say something witty."

(b) Especially after expressions of Not Preventing and the like, § 394.

(c) After expressions of Not Doubting or Not Questioning = Eng. that: quĭs dŭbĭtăt quīn in virtūtĕ dīvĭtĭae sint?" Who doubts that there are riches in virtue?

As a Negative Pronoun can supply a Subject to the Dependent Sentence, quīn may be used instead of quī, quae, quŏd ('Nom.) . . . nōn, § 400 (c), nēmo est quīn dŏlĕ ăt "There is no one but grieves (= quī nōn dŏlĕăt). But an Object cannot be so supplied. So we must have nēmo est guem nōn dŏlĕăt "There is no one but he grieves for."

§ 413. Translation of That.—The English that must be differently translated into Latin according to its sense:

(1) After words of saying and thinking by Infinitive and Accusative, § 206.

(2) If it means the fact that, by quŏd, § 214 (2).

(3) If it denotes consequence, by ŭt, etc., § 393.

(4) If it denotes, purpose, by ŭt, etc., § 395.

(5) If it denotes the object of fear, by nē, § 397.

(6) After Negatives, often by quin, § 412.

(7) Oh that! is expressed by ŭtĭnam, compare § 189(1).

§ 414. Translation of To.—The English to with Verbs is translated:

(1) By the Simple Infinitive, §§ 372—376.

(2) After Verbs of hoping and promising by the Future Infinitive and Accusative, § 379.

(3) For the to of purpose see next section.

§ 415. To of Purpose.—This may be variously expressed in Latin. For he sent soldiers to burn the town we may have—

mīsĭt mīlĭtĕs	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \\\ \\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	(1) ŭt urbem crĕmāent.
		(2) quī urbem crĕmarent, § 400 (a).
		(3) ăd urbem crĕmandam.
		(4) urbis crĕmandae causă (or grātiā).
		(5) urbem crĕmātum, § 194.

Mīsĭt mīlĭtēs urbem crĕmātūrōs (§ 371) is very rare, and the Infinitive [§ 377 (2)] only poetical.

Notes on the Conditional Statement.

§ 416. A condition is generally expressed by sī, but it may also be expressed in other ways.

(a) A relative may be used: qui for sī quĭs if anyone.

Quī vĭdērĕt ĕquum Trōiānum intrōductum, urbem captam dīcĕrĕt

A man who had seen {if a man had seen) the Trojan horse brought in, he would have said the city was captured.

(b) The condition may be shown by aimply placing the two clauses together.

Pōscĭt rēx, dandum est: vŏcăt, vĕnĭendum	The king asks—we must give: he calls—we must come.
Rŏogēs me, nĭhĭl respondeăm	Were you to ask me, I should make no answer.

(c) The condition may be contained in a participle (or some other word).

Sī lătĕt ars, prōdest : affert dēprēnsă pŭdōrem

If art is concealed, it does good: (if) 'detected, it brings shame.

All these forms are subject to the general rules of the Conditional Statement §§ 234 sqq.

§ 417. Mixture of Types of Conditional Statement.—The general rule for the formation of the Conditional Statement, that the Protasis and Apodosis must not consist of forms inconsistent with each other, is subject to some exceptions.

(a) There being no Indicative of the Indefinite Second Person (§355) the Subjunctive is used instead: standum est in lĕctō sī quid dē summō pĕtās one must stand on the sofa if one wants anything from the top.

If any other person is used, the Ind. is necessary. Hence: sī quĭd pĕtĭmŭs or sī quĭd pĕtĭtŭr.

(b) The Indicative is used regularly in phrases like longum est it would be long.

Longum est'sī omnīă nārrem	It would be a long affair if I told everything.
Mĕ1ĭŭs ĕrăt'sī dīmĭcāssĕt	It would have been better if he had fought.

(c) The Subjunctive (especially in the Secondary Tenses) is occasionally replaced by an expression in the Indicative, which means nearly the same as the Subjunctive. Thus in sīiŭssĕs, pārŭissem if you had ordered me, I should have obeyed; instead of saying I should have obeyed, which implies I did not obey, we might say I ought to have obeyed, I was going to obey, or the like.

Sī sīgnum dătum essĕt, If a signal had been given,	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \\\ \\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	pūgnārĕ debebant it was their duty to fight.
		pūgnārĕ pŏtĕrant they were able to fight.
		pūgnandum ĕrăt they were obliged to fight.
		pūgnātūrī ĕrant they were on the eve of fighting.
		pūgnābant they were for fighting (§ 178).

§ 418. Rare or Poetical Uses.—(a) Some other deviations (chiefly poetical) are due to a desire to be brief or emphatic.

Quŏd nī ĭ tă sŏt, quĭd vĕnĕrāmur deŏs?	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	If this were not so—why do we worship the gods? (i.e. we should not worship them as we do),
Sī frāctŭs illăbŭtur orbĭs, impvăvĭdum fŭrĭent ruīnae	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	If the shattered world fell upon him, its ruins will strike an undaunted man (would certainly do so).
Praeclārē vīcĕamŭs, nĭsĭ fŭgĭentem Lĕpĭdŭs rĕcēpissĕt Antōnium.	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	We had gained a glorious victory, but for Lepidus having received Antonius when he fled.
Mĕmĭnī nŭmĕrōs si verbă tĕnērem.	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	I remember the tune (that is, I could sing the song) if I knew the words.

(b) In old and poetical Latin the Primary tenses of the Subjunctive are frequently used (instead of Secondary) to denote Imaginary Suppositions relating to the Present: tū sī hīc sīs, ălĭtĕr sentĭās if you were here, you would think otherwise.

(c) Poets use them for greater vividness, even of Imaginary Sup-

positions relating to the Past: spătia et sī plŭra sŭpersint, trānseăt and if more ground had remained, he would have passed him.

§ 419. Commands and Wishes are sometimes coupled with conditions. The form of the Protasis depends on the sense.

Risĕrĭt (Fut. Perf ), adrīdē	If she smiles, smile too.
Pĕrĕam sī nōn piscem pŭtāvī	Hang me if I did not think a fish!

§420.Substitutes for Pluperfect Subjunctive in Dependent Sentences.—The Pluperfect Subjunctive of Imaginary Suppositions (§ § 242, 243) is rarely used in those Dependent Sentences which of themselves require the Subjunctive. After (1) Consecutive ŭt, (2) haud dŭbĭum est quīn, etc., and (3) in Indirect Questions, its place is taken by one of the substitutes mentioned in §417(c), which is then put into the Subjunctive in accordance with the requirements of the Dependent Sentence.

The Tense used is the Perfect Subjunctive, whatever the tense of the Verb in the Principal Sentence.

(A) In the Active the Future Participle with fŭĕrim is used, (B) In the Passive pŏtŭĕrim with the Infinitive is used, or fŭĕrim with the Gerund or Gerundive.

(a) Adĕō părātă ăpŭd mălōs sēdĭtĭoŭt rĕdeuntem ā cēnā Othōnem raptūrī fŭĕrint so ripe (was) an outbreak amongst the disloyal that they would have caught up Otho when returning from dinner; sī ĭd făcĕrĕ vŏlŭissĕs, nōn dŭbĭto quīn omnĭs ăd tē conversūră fŭerĭt multĭtūdō if you had been able to do this, I do not doubt- that the whole multitude would have turned to you.

(b) Adĕō aequă postŭlāstis ŭt ultrō vōbīs dĕferendă fŭĕrint you have asked things so fair that they would have been offered you without asking; ventum ĕrăt ĕō ŭt, sī admōtŭs extemplō exercĭtŭs fŏrĕt, căpī castră pŏtŭĕrint matters had come to this, that, if the army had been moved up at once, the camp would have been taken.

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ORATIO OBLIQUA.

§ 421. Speeches and messages of any considerable length are not usually reported in the words of the speaker (called Direct Discourse), but in a peculiar form of indirect construction to which the name of ōrātiō obliquă' (or Indirect Discourse) is specially applied.

For the most part speeches (and messages) are reported by "third persons" (that is, not by the persons speaking or addressed at the time), and some time after their delivery.

Hence the changes involved in converting Direct Discourse (Ōrātiō Rēctă, O. R.) into Indirect Discourse are generally threefold,^[102] and are due to—
(A) Change of Construction, Direct Quotation becoming indirect.
(B) Change of Person.
(C) Change of Time.

§ 422. (A) Changes of Construction. Finite Verbs are changed to the Subjunctive' or Infinitive (with Ace.) as follows:

Principal Sentences according to their kinds, § 109.
Statements. Always Infinitive.
Questions. Infinitive or Subjunctive.
Commands. Always Subjunctive.
Wishes. The Infinitive of a Verb of wishing with another Verb depending on it. See § 430, ex. (7).

Dependent Sentences. Always Subjunctive.

§ 423. (B) Changes of Person. If a speech is reported by a "third person,"

The First Person is	generally	represented by	sē (sŭŭs).
The Second Person	„	„	ĭs or illĕ.
The Third Person	„	„	ĭs or illĕ.

Hīc and istĕ generally become illĕ, hīc here ĭbĭ or illīc.

Illĕ is used of the more emphatic Person, Second or Third as the case may be ; is of the less emphatic one.

§ 424. (C) Changes of Time.

If a speech is reported some time after it has been delivered, the Primary Tenses in Dependent Sentences are regularly changed to the corresponding Secondary Tenses.

Adverbs of Time suffer a corresponding change, nunc now becoming tum or tunc then.

§ 425. Some points under (A) require special attention.

I.—Questions.

(A) Questions in the Subjunctive in O. R. remain in the Subjunctive.

(B) Questions in the Indicative in O. R. are changed to the Infinitive or Subjunctive, according to their character (Real or Rhetorical) and their Person.

(a) Real Questions, in which information is asked for, are put in the Infinitive if of the First or Third Person, in the Subjunctive if of the Second Person.

{b') Rhetorical Questions, which are only asked for the sake of effect, and to which no answer is expected, are generally put in the Infinitive of all persons.

But Rhetorical questions which cannot be answered satisfactorily are always put in the Subjunctive' if of the Second Person, and often if of the Third.

Also a Verb of thinking or believing in the Second Person (as pŭtās do you suppose?) is put in the Subjunctive.

§ 426. II.—Tenses of the Infinitive.—For the Tenses of the Infinitive when it represents an Indicative of the O. R. see the table in § 430 below.

The Subjunctive (of Imagination) in Principal Sentences, § 383, is also represented by the Infinitive (of the Periphrastic Future).

Primary Tenses of the Subjunctive are represented—
In the Active by the Future Participle with essĕ;
In the Passive by fŏrĕ (fŭtūrum essĕ) ūt with Subj.^[103]

Secondary Tenses of the Subjunctive are represented—
In the Active by the Future Participle with fĕissĕ;
In the Passive by fŭtūrum fŭisse ŭt with Subj.' The Imperfect Subjunctive is sometimes treated as a Primary tense.

§ 427. III.—Dependent Sentences.—The Infinitive occasionally appears in those Relative sentences, in which quī equals ĕt ĭs, but very rarely in really dependent ones.

§ 428. The following table shows the correspondence of Tenses in the Indirect Discourse of a speech which is reported some time after it has been delivered.

Direct Discourse.			Indirect Discourse.
Principal Sentences.
Indicative.	Present		Infinitive.	Present.
	Future	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$		Fut Inf.,usally without essĕ
	Perfect	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$		Perfect
	Imperfect
	Pluperfect
Subjunctive	Present or Perfect	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$		Periphrastic Future with essĕ, § 204.
	Imperfect	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$		Periphrastic Future with essĕ or fŭissĕ.
	Pluperfect	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$		Periphrastic Future with fŭissĕ, § 204.
Dependent Sentences.
Indicative or Subjunctive.	Present	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	Subjunctive.	Imperfect
	Future
	Imperfect
	Perfect	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$		Pluperfect
	Fut.Perfect
	Pluperfect

§ 429. Retention of Person and Tenses of Direct Discourse.

Of the changes included under (A), (B), and (C), those of (A) are alone found in all Indirect Discourse.

The changes in Person (B) depend upon who is reporting the speech. Thus if the speaker reports his own words, the First Person remains unchanged.

Similarly for (C). The change of tenses is due to the fact that the speech is a thing of the past when reported. This is expressed by using a Secondary Tense, like dīxĭt he said, which is then followed by Secondary Tenses.

But if a Present can be used, as in quoting from a book, or a Future, as in predicting what a person will say, the Primary Tenses are not changed to Secondary.

§ 430. The following examples illustrate the foregoing rules. The Verb introducing the Ōrātiō Oblīquă is supposed to be in the Third Person and in a Secondary Tense, unless stated to be otherwise.

	Direct Discourse.		Indirect Discourse.
(1)	Nōs ĭtă ā patrĭbus dĭdĭcĭmŭs ut măgĭs virtūtĕ quam dŏlŏ contendāmŭs.	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	Sē ĭtă ā patrĭbus sŭīs dĭdĭcissĕ ut măgĭs virtūtĕ quam dŏlŏ contendĕrent
(2)	Quārē nē commīsĕrĭs ŭt hīc lŏcŭs ex călămĭtātĕ pŏpŭlī Rōmānī nōmĕn căpĭăt.	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	Quārā nā coramīttĕrĕt ŭt ĭs lŏcŭs ex călămĭtātĕ pŏpŭlī Rōmānī nōmĕn căpĕrĕt.
(3)	Quĭd dē praedā făcĭendum cēns'ētĭs? (Real question.)	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	Quĭd dē prāedā făcĭendum cēnsērent?
(4)	Quid fiet si legem pertulero? (Real question.)	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	Quĭd fiĕtūrum sī lēgem pertŭlisset?
(5)	Quĭd ĕnim per pŏpŭlum ēgistĭs? (Rhetorical question.)[104]	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	Quid ĕnim ĕōs per pŏpŭlum ēgissĕ?
(6)	Quĭd tĭbĭ vīs? cūr in meās possēssiōnes vēnīs? (Rhetorical question, no satisfactory answer.)	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	Quid sĭbĭ vellet? cūr in sŭās possēssĭōnēs vĕnirĕt?
(7)	Mŏrĭăr pŏtĭŭs' quam nē quam vīvam!		Māllĕ sē mŏrī quam nēquam vīvĕrĕ.
(8)	Nĭsĭ tē audĭrĕ vellem, nōn haec dixissem.		Nĕgāvit sē, nĭsĭ ĕum audīrĕ vellet,illă dictūrum fŭissĕ.
(9)	Nĭsĭ nŭntiĭ dē Caesărĭs victōrĭā essent allātī, oppĭdum āmīssum essĕt	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	Nĭsĭ nūntiī dē Caesărĭs victōriā essent allāati, fŭtūrum fŭissĕ ŭt oppĭdum āmītĕrētŭr.
(10)	Aggrēsūs essĕt mē in concĭliō; dīlātă rēs est quŏd auctŏr cōnsĭlī āfŭit quam māxĭmē peteddt.[105]		(After nūntĭātŭr) Aggrēssūr-um fŭissĕ sē in concĭliō; dīlātam rem essĕ quod auctor cōnsĭlī āfŭĕrit quem māxĭmē pĕtŭrŭt.

§ 431. Observations on the Oratio Obliqua.

(1) The Ōrŭtiō oblīquă is sometimes introduced by Verbs which only imply saying; sometimes the idea of saying is only to be gathered from the context. Compare § 399.

{2) The Imperative is never used in Or. Obi. The Indicative is an irregularity very rarely found, and chiefly after dum whilst.

(3) The usage of the Pronouns sē, ĭs, illĕ, in Or. Obi. can only be fully learned from reading. It must not be forgotten that sē retains its usual reference to the subject of a sentence in Or. Obi.

{4) In graphic reports of speeches by historians, etc., the Primary Tenses are often not changed to Secondary Tenses, though the speech is a thing of the past. Compare the sequence of the Historic Present, § 389 (b).

Sometimes Primary and Secondary Tenses are found side by side, e.g., Caes. B. G. I. 14, admīrārētur......sint.

(5) More examples of the Ōrātiō Oblīqua may be found in Caes. B. G. I. 40, 44, 45 ; IV. 16 ; Livy, I. 9, 47, 50, 53 ; XXI. 30, 53, 63.

---

ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS.

§ 432. Owing to its greater wealth of inflexions, the order of words in Latin is not as rigidly fixed as it is in English, but it is never arbitrary.

Some kinds of words are limited to certain positions, and other kinds of words are generally found in certain positions. But beyond this, the arrangement of the words in a Latin sentence is determined first by the requirements of Clearness, the relation of the words to each other being made as plain as possible; secondly by those of Emphasis, the words being placed in the positions which their comparative importance demands; and lastly by those of Rhythm, the words being arranged so as to please the ear as much as possible.

§ 433. Words which cannot stand First in a Sentence.

1. The Enclitics, which are always appended to a word. These are -quĕ, -vĕ, -nĕ and the Prep, cum when it governs Personal, and usually when it governs Relative Pronouns, as sēcum, quĭbuscum.
2. The Indefinite Pronoun quĭs anyone, and the Adverbs quŏ anywhither, quā anywhere, derived from it.
3. The Adverbs or Conjunctions vērō, autem but, ĭgĭtŭr therefore, ĕnim for, usually stand second in a sentence.
4. Quŏquĕ too, quĭdem indeed, follow the word they emphasise.

Tămen usually stands first in a sentence; but if it emphasises a particular word, it follows that word.

§ 434. Words which stand First in a Sentence.

1. Co-ordinate and Subordinate Conjunctions.
2. Relative Pronouns.^[106]
3. Interrogative Pronouns^[106] and Adverbs.

§ 435. General Rules of Order.

The two most important positions in the sentence are the beginning and the end.

Subject to the requirements of Emphasis, the sentence either begins with the Subject or with the word which most clearly shows the connexion with what precedes.

The sentence must end with some word which is essential to the construction or important to the sense.

In the middle of the sentence the words are arranged so that the words which are most closely connected stand nearest together.

§ 436. Special Rules.

1. The Subject stands first, the Finite Verb last.
2. Ordinary Adjectives, Genitives, and other Attributes generally follow the Nouns to which they belong.
3. Adjectives of Number and Quantity and Demonstrative Pronouns precede the Verbs or Adjectives to which they belong.
4. Adverbs (including non) and Oblique Cases precede the Verbs or Adjectives to which they belong.
5. Prepositions always precede the Cases^[107]
6. In phrases consisting of a Noun with an Adjective and other Complements, the Adjective is generally put first, the Noun last, and the other Complements in between.

These rules are illustrated by the following sentence:—

1 Līvĭŭs, 2 impĕrātor 2 fortīssĭmus, quamquam adventŭs 2 hostĭum 4 nōn ŭbĭ 1 ŏportŭit nūntĭătŭs 1 est, pĕrīcŭlum 3 iliā 6 sŭā 5 in rēbus dŭbĭŭīs 6 audācĭā 4 făcĭlĕ 1 ēvāsĭt.

$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \\\ \\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$

Livius, a most excellent commander, although the enemy's arrival was not reported when it should have been, easily escaped the danger by his well-known daring in perilous positions.

§ 437. Notice that the order of words in a sentence is not affected if its form is changed through its becoming part of another sentence.

Hence we have Līvĭŭs . . . pĕrīcŭlum ĭliā suā ĭn rēbus dŭbĭīs audācĭā făcĭlĕ ēvāsissĕ dīcĭtūr (is said to have escaped); Livĭŭs . . . pĕrīcŭlum iliā sŭā in rēbus dŭbĭīs audāciā făcĭlĕ ēvādendō laudem mĕrŭĭt (won credit by escaping), etc.

§ 438. Order and Emphasis.—Emphasis is often expressed by Order in Latin when in English we have to express it by laying stress on a word in pronouncing, or by underlining it in writing.

Emphasis is expressed:

(1) By placing a word in an unusual position, especially if that is also a prominent one. Thus the sentence Clōdĭŭs sĕnātum irrīdĕt may have any of its parts made emphatic as follows:

Sĕnātum Clŏdĭŭs irrīdĕt It is the Senate that Clodius is mocking.

Irrīdĕt Clōdĭŭs sĕnātum Clodius is mocking the Senate.

Sĕnatum irrīdet Clōdĭŭs The Senate is being mocked by Clodius.

(2) By separating words which would ordinarily come together: cōnsĭliŭm excōgĭtāvĭt immāne He devised a horrible scheme.

(3) By putting together words which would ordinarily be separated: hŏmĭnēs hūmānā carnĕ vescī! Men to eat human flesh!

(4) When pairs of words are contrasted, the order of the words in one pair is often the reverse of that in the other. Thus in the line; Vilitis argentum est aurō, virtūtibŭs aurum Silver is cheaper than gold, gold than virtues, argentum is contrasted with aurum, and aurō with virtūtībŭs.

This is called chiasmus from the arrangement of the words resembling the Greek letter chi:

argentum	χ	aurō
virtūtĭbŭs		aurum

§ 439. Order and Rhythm.—The Latin writers take great care that their sentences shall be so arranged that they shall be easy to read and pleasant to hear. But no rules can be given here for securing this. The student's own observation must be his guide. But it must be observed that no arrangement of words, however rhythmical, is admissible if it is obtained by sacrificing Clearness or Emphasis.

Note that words must not be so arranged in Prose as to form a verse or a considerable part of a verse.

§ 440. Order in Poetry.—The order of words in Poetry is largely determined by the metre, and often differs widely-from that of prose, e.g., sōlŭs ăvem caelō dēiēcĭt ăb altō He alone brought down the bird from the high skies, would be in prose: sōlŭs a caelō altō ăvem dēiēcĭt. But the requirements of metre never justify any arrangement which obscures the sense.

In poetry, not only the beginning and end of the sentence, but the beginning and especially the end of the verse, are important positions, and must not consist of unemphatic words.

PROSODY.

§ 441. Latin Verse differs from Prose by a certain regular arrangement of long and short syllables: not as English verse by a regular arrangement of accented and unaccented syllables. There is no rhyme.

§ 442. Metrical quantity is quantity of syllables. Thus the quantity of este is metrically ¯ ˘, for though the first e is short like the second, the time occupied by the two consonants st makes the first syllable long.

It is wrong to say the vowel is long in such cases. See § 9.

General Rules of Metrical Quantity.

§ 443. Syllables containing a vowel or diphthong 'pronounced long are long. Syllables containing a vowel pronounced short are short, unless they are lengthened by Position.

h counts for nothing in determining quantity.

§ 444. Position.—1. Syllables containing a short vowel are long by Position if it is followed in the same word by x or z or any combination of consonants except pr, br, cr, gr, dr, tr, fr : pl, cl, fl. Thus este counts as ¯ ˘.

Before these combinations the syllable may be either short or long (Common), provided the vowel is short. Thus agrōs may count either as ˘ ¯ or as ¯ ¯.

2. Final syllables ending in a short vowel followed by a consonant are long by "Position," if the word ends and the next word begins with any consonant. Thus ab rē counts as ¯ ¯ .

Final syllables ending in a short vowel only, remain short, although the next word begins with two consonants. Thus pete trēs counts as ˘ ˘ ¯.

The poets, however, avoid placing a short vowel before a word beginning with x or z or sc, sq, sp, st.

§ 445. Elision.—When a word ending in a vowel, or diphthong, or a vowel followed by m, stands before another word beginning with a vowel or h, its last syllable is not counted in the verse, as ill(e) agit, ill(um) agit. See § 255.

Non-elision is called Hiatus. Interjections are not elided.

Quantity or Final Syllables.^[108]

§ 446. Monosyllables.—Monosyllables are long.

Except (a) Enclitics as -quĕ, (b) words ending in b, d, and t, (c) făc and nĕc, sometimes hĬc; fĕl, mĕl, vĕl; ăn and ĭ ; fĕr, pĕr, tĕr, vĭr, cŏr; ĭs and quĭs (Nom. ), bĭs and cĭs; ŏs bone, ĕs thou art.

§ 447. Dissyllables and Polysyllables.

I. Vowel endings all are long, excepting y and e.

II. Consonantal all are short, save ās, ēs, ōs, and c.

Exceptions to I.—A is short in N. Voc. Sing., in Neut. PI., and ită, quiă, eiă.

I is short in nisĭ and quasĭ; common in mihī̆, tibī̆, sibī̆, ubī̆, ibī̆.

O is short in citŏ, duŏ, egŏ, modŏ, quomodŏ; sometimes in homō̆ and nemō̆, in Lat. Proper Names as Scipiŏ, and in sciŏ, nesciŏ, putŏ volŏ used parenthetically.

E is long in (a) 5th Decl. as diē, (b) Adverbs from Adjectives of the First Class except benĕ, malĕ, infernĕ, supernĕ; (c) Imperatives of 2nd Conj. except cavē̆.

Exceptions to II.—The Perfect forms iīt (and compounds), petiīt and compounds of pār are long.

AS is short in anăs.

ES is short in (a) penĕs and compounds of ĕs thou art; (b) No Sing., 3rd Decl., with Gen. in -ĕtis, -ĭtis, -ĭdis, except ariēs, abiēs, pariēs,

OS is short in exŏs, compŏs, impŏs.

EC is short in donĕc.

US is long in (a) Gen. S. and Ace. PI. 4th Decl., (b) Nom. 3rd Decl. if Gen. has a long penultimate as virt-ūs, G. -ūtis.

IS is long in (a) D. Abl. PI., ('b) Ace. PI. 3rd Decl., (c) Samnīs, Quirīs, and some Greek names as Salamīs, (d) 2 Sg. Pres. Ind. Act. 4th Conj. as audīs, (e) velīs, malīs, nolīs, and compounds of sīs; (f) it is common in the Fut. Perf, and Perf. Subj. as amaverī̆s.

Greek Words.—These often show exceptions :

To I. as -ĭ (Voc, sometimes D. 3rd Decl.), -ē (1st Decl.).

To II. as: -ēr (N. 3rd Decl.), -ēn, sometimes -ān (Ace. 1st Decl., Nom. 3rd Decl.), -ūs (G. Sing.), -ăs (Acc. Pl. 3rd Decl.), -ĕs (N. PI. 3rd Decl.), -ŏs (N. Sing, ist Decl., G. Sing. 3rd Decl.).

§ 448. Quantity in other Syllables.

I. Syllables containing a vowel or diphthong immediately followed by another vowel or h are short as via, trahis, priest.

Except (a) G. Sing, in -āī (1st Decl.), -ēī (5th Decl.); (b) Gen. of Pronouns, etc., in -īns; alīus, solīus, neutrīus always; -ī̆us in the rest as ipsī̆us, but usually alterĭus; (c) dīus, Dī̆ana, Gāius, ēheu. ō̆he; many Greek words as āer, Cōus; (d) ī in fīo except before ĕr as fĭeri.

2. Vowels followed by i (consonant) are long, as ēia; bĭ-iugus, quadrĭ-igus are exceptions.

3. Syllables in which contraction has taken place are long: as cōgo for cŏăgo.

4. Compounds and derived words usually keep the quantity of theit simples, as cădo, accĭdo, căducus. But there are many exceptions. ǁ

Verses.

§ 449. Verses are divided into Feet, each containing two or more syllables.

The foot ¯ ˘ ˘ is called a Dactyl ; the foot ¯ ¯a Spondee. The foot may be compared to a bar of music : the Dactyl being the metrical equivalent of the bar 𝄀 𝅗𝅥 𝅘𝅥 𝅘𝅥 𝄀  the Spondee of the bar 𝄀 𝅗𝅥 𝅗𝅥 𝄀  

These feet are equal in quantity.

The other feet most usually employed are the Iambus ˘ ¯ , the Trochee ¯ ˘ , the Anapaest ˘ ˘ ¯ , the Choriambus ¯ ˘ ˘ ¯.

§ 450. The kinds of verses most used are the Dactylic Hexameter and the Dactylic Pentameter.

The Hexameter consists of Six Feet; of which the last is a Spondee, the fifth a Dactyl (rarely a Spondee). The rest may be either Dactyls or Spondees. Thus:

¯ ˘ ˘	¯ ˘ ˘	¯ ˘ ˘	¯ ˘ ˘	¯ ˘ ˘	¯ ¯
¯ ¯	¯ ¯	¯ ¯	¯ ¯

The Pentameter is constructed thus :

¯ ˘ ˘	¯ ˘ ˘	¯	¯ ˘ ˘	¯ ˘ ˘	¯
¯ ¯	¯ ¯

The metrical pause  𝄁  always coincides with the end of a word.

The last syllable of a verse may be short, the pause at the end completing the quantity.

§ 451. Caesura.—When a foot contains the end of one word and the beginning of another, the division is called the Caesura. The division ¯ 𝄀  ˘ ˘ or ¯ 𝄀  ¯ is the Strong Caesura , ¯ ˘ 𝄀  ˘ the Weak Caesura.

In a Hexameter either the third or the fourth foot must have a strong caesura. The fifth foot of a Hexameter has a weak caesura or none at all, and the last dactyl of a Pentameter must have the weak caesura.

§ 452. The Pentameter is only used alternately with the Hexameter forming the Elegiac metre, appropriate to Reflective poems.

The Hexameter used alone constitutes the Heroic metre, appropriate to Narrative poems.

MISCELLANEOUS.

§ 453. Verbs Governing a Dative.—The following is a further list of the Verbs referred to in § 308 (2) and not covered by (1) and (3) of that section, which take a Dative of the Indirect Object. Those marked A may also take an Acc. of the Direct Object (a thing) : impĕrat victīs pĕcūniam he orders the conquered (to pay) money; impĕrat hōc victīs he orders the conquered (to do) this. Those marked N. P. may, in addition to the Dative, also take the Acc. of a Neuter Pronoun.

adversāri oppose
assentāri flatter
auxĭliāri assist
blandīrī flatter
cēdere yield^[109]
cŏmĭtārī accompany^[110]
cōncēdere yield
cōnfīdere trust^[111]
cōnsulere consult for^[112]
crēdere believe (N.P.)
deesse fail
diffīdere distrust
displĭcēre displease
făvere support
fīdere trust^[112]
grātĭfīcāri oblige (N.P.)
grātŭlārī congratulate (N. P.)
īgnōscere pardon (N.P.)
impĕrāre order (A)
indulgēre indulge
īnsĭdiāri plot against
invĭdēre envy
īrāscī be angry with
mălĕ dīcere abuse
mĕdērī treat medically
mĭnārī threaten (A)
mŏdĕrārī restrain^[113]
mĭnĭtārī threaten (A)
nŏcēre harm
nūbere marry (a husband)
ŏbesse be injurious
ŏboedīre obey
obssĕqui be compliant
obtempĕrāre obey
obtrectāre disparage
offĭcere be in way of
ŏpĭtŭlārī assist
parcere spare
persuādēre persuade (N.P.)
plăcēre please
prōdesse advantage
rĕfrāgāri oppose
sătis făcĕre satisfy
servīre serve
stŭdere be devoted to
suādēre advise (A)
suffrāgarī support
supplĭcāre supplicate
suscēnsēre be angry
tempĕrāre restrain^[113]

1. Greek Neuter Nouns, as sināpi, mustard.
2. Not found in Nom. Sing.
3. But frōns, front-is, f. forehead.
4. But os, ōrĭs, n. mouth.
5. But impūbēs, impūb-ĭs (adj.) under age.
6. Also tergum, tergī,n.
7. ' Tempē is Neuter Plural.
8. Note that the three Neuters in -us of Second Decl, (pĕlăgus vīrus, vulgus) have no Plur.
9. ' But ūna castra one camp.
10. With these the Manner is expressed by using modō in the Abl, as hōc mŏdō in this way.
11. So other compounds, the ā forms being more frequent, plĭcō, the simple Verb, is rare.
12. But compounds with dissyllabic Prepositions, thus:

    circurmstō

    circumstetī

    circumstāre

    stand round

13. Fut. Part. lăvaturus; P. Part, lautus or lōtus. The Pres. Ind. and Inf. sometimes follow the Third Conj.
14. Most compounds, and sometimes the simple Verb, are of the Fourth Conj.
15. Fervō, fervĕre, also occurs.
16. Simple Verb not used. So in other cases when only compounds are given.
17. Fulgō, fulgĕre, also occurs.
18. But circum-sĕeō.
19. The Part, prānsus is used in the Active sense, having lunched.
20. Strīdo, strīdĕire, also occurs.
21. A form accersō is also found with the same meaning.
22. Past Part, crētus in Deponent sense.
23. Obsolete; messem fēcī is used instead.
24. Pres. Part, nōtus used only as Adj. well-known. No Ger. Fut. Part, nōvi I have got to know, I know.
25. Of an older quaesere only quaesō, quaesumus are used.
26. Perf. subj. sīrim.
27. Dēstĭtī is generally used instead,
28. Past Part, sometimes -postus in compounds.
29. So il-liciō and pel-liciō.
30. So other compounds, except ap-plaudō.
31. The Reduplication is omitted in forming compounds, except those of dīsco, pīsco, sisto, and sometimes of curro.
32. Cantatum (from cantāre) is used as the Supine.
33. But rĕperiō, Perf. repperī.
34. repellō makes Perf. reppulī.
35. Statuī (from statuō) is generally used instead.
36. Some compounds have -tēnsum as well as -tentum.
37. Compounds have generally -tūsum.
38. So other compounds with monosyllabic Prepositions. But circumdo, circumdedī, circumdătum, circumdăre put round; so also pessumdō destroy, venumdo sell.
39. Vēn-ĕō (a compound of ire) is used as passive of this Verb, except Past Part, -vēnditus. So per-eō of per-dō destroy, except Past Part, perditus.
40. So other compounds, except cōgō, peragō.
41. For ab-iiciō. The i is dropped in writing, but not in pronunciation.
42. But al-legō, iniel-legō, neg-lĕgō, per-lego, prae-lego, re-lego, sub-legō.
43. Intel-legō and neg-lĕgō also have Perf. in -xi.
44. Pass. Part, acūtus only as Adj. sharp.
45. Feriō is used as the Pres.
46. Nīxus resting on; nīsus having striven.
47. Pepigī is commonly used as Perf,
48. A form ar- is found in ar-cessĕre, ar-bĭter.
49. s following x is sometimes dropped, as expectare, but it is better to retain it.
50. os-tendĕre is compounded from a form obs-, compare abs. It is doubtful if ŏ-mīttĕe, ŏ-pĕrīre are compounds with ŏb-.
51. sus (for subs, compare abs) is found in the phrase susquĕ dēque above and below, of no consequence.
52. fīnĕ is used sometimes in the same sense, as fīnĕ gĕnūs as far as the knee.
53. Conceal, teach.
54. Entreat, request, request urgently.
55. Ask, question.
56. nūbōmarry (of the woman), stŭdeō devote oneself to, indulgeō give way to.
57. Hurt, heal, order.
58. Delight, allow, assist.
59. Only Adjectives of Quantity can be used with the Predicative Dat.
60. Gen. of Connexion.
61. Possession.
62. Definition.
63. Description.
64. Matter charged.
65. Mental object (here person forgotten).
66. These constructions are probably imitations of the Greek.
67. Ablative of Motion from.
68. Origin.
69. Agent.
70. Separation.
71. Comparison.
72. Instrument.
73. Cause.
74. Cost.
75. Amount of Difference.
76. Manner.
77. Description.
78. Abl. of Place.
79. Route.
80. Thing concerned.
81. Time.
82. Locative.
83. Abl. of Cost (the amount paid being the means). Parvī might also have been used.
84. Abl. of Comparison.
85. Genitive of Price (by confusion with the Locative),
86. Except those mentioned in §§ 133, 149, 155.
87. Such as sentences with vix scarcely and the like; Questions implying the answer No, etc.
88. Words marked thus (*) usually stand second in a sentence.
89. Sometimes the Imper.
90. Here the Subject of the Participle is a Sentence, and nōtum is therefore Neut.
91. After a Secondary tense, e.g., dixit he said, no change in the Infinitive.
92. căpĕrentūr, after a Secondary tense.
93. After a Secondary tense, e.g., dīxit he said, no change in the Infinitive.
94. aspexisset, after a Secondary tense.
95. dĕdissĕt, after a Secondary tense.
96. prŏpĕrārĕt, after a Secondary tense.
97. The Subjunctives under this head are hence sometimes called Potential.
98. The Subjunctive in this use is often called "Jussive." In Questions it is also called " Deliberative " or " Dubitative,"
99. Primary Tenses make the narrative more vivid.
100. The alleged reason is not necessarily a false one.
101. For the quīn in Principal Sentences, see 354.
102. See, however, § 429.
103. These forms are rare.
104. The difference between questions of the form of (5) and (6) is that questions like (5) are really disguised statements. "What have you done by means of the people?" implies you have done nothing. But What do you want? only implies you cannot give a satisfactory account of yourself.
105. He would have attacked me at the meeting, (but) his scheme was postponed because the promoter of the plan, at whom he chiefly aimed, was absent.
106. Except when governed by a Preposition.
107. Except cum (see above), tĕnŭs and versŭs.
108. The student should observe that in §§ 447, 448, the marks of quantity are only placed on those syllables to which the rules of quantity refer.
109. cēdere, concēdere, take Acc. in sense of granting anything.
110. Also with Acc.
111. confidere, fīdere, take the Dat. of persons (and sometimes of things):="trust to": the Abl. of things="trust. in."
     
112. Takes Acc. in sense of consulting a person.
113. mŏdĕrārī and tempĕrāre take an Acc. in the sense of governing or controlling.

§ 454. Construction of Impersonal and Quasi-Impersonal Verbs.

1. The Five Impersonals [§ 166 (b)]:

pĭget, pŭdet, paenĭtet	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	take	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	Genitive of Person.
tadedĕt,atque, mĭsĕret				Accusative of Mental Object,
				Infinitive of Verb.

as paenĭtet mē factī I am sorry for what has been done; pŭdet dīcere I am ashamed to say.

Note.—mĭsĕret does not take the Infinitive; paenĭtet may also take a Neuter Pronoun, as hōc mē paenĭtet I am dissatisfled with this.

2. The following list gives the construction of Nouns and Verbs with the chief Quasi-Impersonals:—

accĭdit happens, D. Pers. : ŭt w. Subj.
appāret is plain, as lĭquet
cōnstat is established, Inf. w. Acc.
contingit comes about, as accĭdit
convĕnit is agreed, ŭt Subj.
is suitable, Inf.
dĕcet is becoming, N. Pron., Acc. Pers. : Inf.
dedēcet is unbecoming, as dĕcet
ēvĕnit happens, as accĭdit
est happens, is possible, ŭt Subj.
expĕdit is useful, D. Pers.: ŭt Subj.
fĭt happens, as est
iŭvat delights. Acc. Pers.: Inf.
lĭbet pleases, N. Pron.: Inf.
lĭcet is allowed, N. Pron., D. Pers. Inf., ŭt Subj., Subj.
lĭquet is plain, N. Pron., D. Pers. Inf.
nĕcesse est is necessary, N. Pron., D. Pers. :Inf., ŭt Subj., Subj.
ŏportet is right, N. Pron., Ace. Pers. : Inf., Subj.
plăcet pleases, D. Pers. ; Inf. , ŭt Subj.^[1]
restat remains, D. Pers.:ŭt Subj.

sĕiquĭtur follows, ŭt Subj.

1. i plăcet it is my opinion always takes Inf. ūt with the Subjunctive is also found with certain phrases with Nouns : dăre ŏpĕram bestow pains, ĭd ăgĕre make one's object, nĕgōtium dăre intrust with the task. So mōs est, cōnsuētudo est it is customary (also with the Inf. ), non vērī simile est it is improbable.

§455. Verbs Taking ut with Subjunctive.

The following list includes the more common Verbs which take ut with Subjunctive in the best Classical Prose, exclusive of Verbs of Requesting. nē that . . . not is added to those Verbs which take it in accordance with §393* sqq. The Verbs marked (I) take an Infinitive (as complement) if their Subject and the Subject of the Dependent Verb are the same, as dēcrēvit īre he determined to go.

addūcere induce
assequī secure
căvere take care : nē
cēnsēre recommend^[1]
(cōgere compel^[2])
commīttere permit
concēdere allow^[3]
cōnsĕquī secure: nē
cōnstĭtŭere determine(I)
contendere strive
cūrāre take care
dēcernere determine (I)
effĭcere bring about nē
ēnītī strive
exspectāre await
ēvincere 'carry a point: nē
făcere bring about: nē
impellere urge
indūcere induce
īnstāre press
mōlīrī endeavour (I)
obtĭnēre secure
optāre wish ^[4]
păciscī engage: nē
perfĭcere bring about: nē
permīttere allow (I)
perpellere force
providere take care: nē
sancīre enact: nē
stătŭere resolve (I) : nē
temptāre try
tĕnēre secure: nē
vīdēre take care: nē

1. Also with Accusative and Gerundive ; in simple sense of thinking Infinitive and Accusative.
2. cōgere usually takes Infinitive with Accusative.
3. But Infinitive with Accusative in sense of granting that something is the case.
4. vellĕ wish rarely takes ŭt with Subjunctive.

Parsing.

§456. By Parsing a word is meant describing it so as to show

1. . What class of words it belongs to,
2. . What word it comes from,
3. . What part of that word it is, and (usually)
4. . Why that part is used in a sentence.

The different kinds of words may be Parsed by answering the questions which refer to each below. § 457.—Declinable Words—Nouns and Substantival Pronouns.—1. Kind of Noun or Pronoun? 2. Gender? [Declension? ^[1]] Nom. and Gen. Sing.? 3. Number? Case? 4. Account for Case by reference to the Syntax.

Adjectives and Adjectival Pronouns.—1. Kind of Adjective or Pronoun? 2.[Class of Adj.?^[1]] Nom. Sing, (all genders)? (If the Adj. is in the Comparative or Superlative, state which and give Positive). 3. Gender? Number? Case? 4. Agreeing with?

If Verbal Adjective, instead of 1, 2, state whether Gerundive or Participle? If Participle, Tense? Voice? Mention the Verb it comes from, and give its Principal Parts.

Finite Verbs.—1. Kind of Verb? 2. [Conjugation?^[1]] Principal Parts? 3. Person? Number? Tense? Mood? Voice? 4. Agreeing with? Account also for Mood and Tense if necessary.

Infinitive.—1. Kind of Verb? 2. [Conjugation?^[1]] Principal Parts? 3. Tense? Voice? 4. Account for Construction.

§ 458. Indeclinable Words.—Adverb.—Kind? Qualifying? (If in Comparative or Superlative, state which and give the Positive).

Preposition.—State what it governs and in what case?

Conjunction.—Kind? State what it connects?

Interjection.—State what, if anything, it governs, and in what case?

§ 459.Illustrative Example.—Apud Hy̆pănim flŭvium Aristotĕlēs ait bēstiŏlās quāsdam nāscī quae ūnum diem vīvant Aristotle says that on the river Hypanis certain little creatures are born which only live one day. (Parsed with abbreviations.)

ăpud, Prep., Governs Acc. Hypanim.

Hy̆pănim, Prop. Noun, Masc. (3rd Decl.), from Hypanis, -is. Sing. Acc., gov. by apud.

flŭvium, (Common) Noun, Masc. (2nd Decl.), from fluvius, -ī, Sing. Acc. in Appos. to Hypanim.

Aristotĕlēs, Prop. Noun, Masc. (3rd Decl.), Sing. Nom., Gen. Aristotelis, Subj. to ait.

ait, Intrans. Verb, from āiō Defective, 3rd Sing. Pres. Ind. Act., agreeing with Aristotĕlēs.

bēstiŏlās, Noun, Fem. (1st Decl.), from bēstiola -ae, Acc. Pl., Subject to Inf. nāscī.

quāsdam, Indef. Adjectival Pron. from quīdam, quaedam, quoddam, Fem. Pl. Acc., agreeing with bēstiŏlās.

nāscī, Intr. Deponent Verb fr. nāscor nātus sum, Pres. Inf. after ait, verb of saying.

quae, Rel. Pron., fr. quī, quae, quod; Fem. Pl. agr. w. antecedent bēstiolās, Nom. as Subj. to vīvant.

ūnum, Numeral Adj., fr. ūnus, -a, -um, Masc. Sing. Acc., agr. w. diem.

diem, Noun, Masc (5th Decl.), fr. diēs -ēī, Acc. Sing., Acc. of Extent of Time.

vīvant, Intr. Verb (3rd Conj.), fr. vīvō, vīxī, vīctum, vīvere, 3rd Pl. Pres. Subj. Act., agr. w. quae. Subj. of Dependent Statement.

THE ROMAN CALENDAR.

§ 460. The Romans had the same months, and the same number of days in each as we have. But their reckoning was backward and inclusive, that is, they counted in the day reckoned from as well as the day reckoned to. Thus they reckoned the 29th of April as the third day before the 1st of May.

The days from which they reckoned were called— <poem>Kălendae (Kal.) f. Calends, the 1st of the month. Nōnae (Non.) f. Nones, usually the 5th. Idūs (Id.) f. Ides, usunlly the 13th. But—In March, July, October, May, The Ides fell on the fifteenth day, and consequently the Nones on the 7th day of the month.

The Nōnae were so called because, in Roman reckoning, they were the ninth day before the Ides.

The months were called—Iānuārius, Fēbruarius, Mārtius, Aprīlius, Māius, Iūnius, Quīnctīlis July,^[2] Sextilis August,^[3] September, Octōber, Nŏvember, Dĕcember : used either as Masc. Nouns, mēnsis month being understood, or as Adjectives agreeing with Kaiendae, etc.

The Romans indicated the days of the months as follows:

I. The days on which the Calends, Nones, and Ides fell, by the Ablatives Kalendis, Nōnīs, Idibus, and the name of the month agreeing with them, as Nōnīs Mārtīs on the Nones of March, i.e., March 7.

II. The days preceding the Calends, etc., by prefixing prīdiē the day before to the Accusatives Kalendās, etc., and the name of the month agreeing with them, as prīdiē Nōnās Mārtiās the day before the Nones of March, i.e., March 6.

III. All other days by prefixing antĕ diem tertium, quartum, etc., to the Accusatives Kalendās, etc., and the name of the month agreeing with them, as under II. : ante diem tertium Nōnās Mārtiās the second day (third in inclusive reckoning) before the Nones of March, i.e., March 5.

Abbreviations and Numerals were generally used in expressing the date, thus :

a. d. III Non. Mart., March 5. prid. Kal. Ian., December 31. a. d. VIII Id. Quinct.,July 8.

{{smaller|In leap year a day was inserted after February 24 (a. d. sextum Kal. Mart.), and called a. d. bis sextum Kal. Mart., whence leap year was called bissextilis. This day was not taken account of in reckoning the other days of the month.

'The Year.—The Romans named the year after the Consuls, as:— B.C. 44 Antōnīō Dolābellā Cos. (cōnsulibus). Later the supposed date of the founding of Rome, B.C. 753, was used to reckon from. Thus, "78 A.D." may be expressed as A(nno) U(rbis) C(onditae) octingentēnsimo trīcēnsimō prīmō or a.u.c. dcccxxxi., 253 B.C. as a.u.c. di.

Note.—A year A.D. may be turned into the corresponding year a.u.c. by adding 753 to its number, a year B.C. by subtracting its number from 754.

ROMAN WEIGHTS AND MONEY.

§ 461. The basis of the Roman system of weights was the lībra or pound, and of the coinage the ās or pound of copper. Each contained 12 unciae ounces or twelfths, and there were separate names for the different fractions of a pound as follows (arranged, with the exception of quīncunx, in ascending order):

uncia, tum sextāns, quīncunx, quadrānsque triēnsque,
sēmis, septunx, bēs, dōdrāns dextānsque dĕunxque.

uncia 1/12, sextāns 1/6 or 2/12, quadrāns 1/4 or 3/12, triēns 1/3 or 4/12, quīncunx 5/12, sēmis 1/2 or 6/12, septunx 7/12, bēs 2/3 or 8/12, dōdrāns (for dē-quadrāns a fourth off) 3/4 or 9/12, dēxtāns (for dē-sextāns a sixth off) 5/6 or 10/12 dĕunx (lit. an uncia off) 11/12. These words were not limited to the divisions of the pound or the ās, but were used to express fractions generally. Thus hērēs ex trientĕ heir to a third (of the estate).

Two assēs and a half (sēmis), generally abbreviated IIS (HS), made a sēstertius sesterce (also called nummus); and this was used in reckoning sums of money as follows:

1. Up to 2,000, Cardinal Numbers were used, as ceutum sēstertiī 100 sesterces.
2. Above 2,000 and up to a million, the Neuter Plural sēstertia was used to give the thousands, as trīgintā quīnque sēstertia 35,000 sesterces.
3. For a million and above. Numeral Adverbs were used. Thus 4,000,000 sesterces is expressed by quadrāgiēns centēna mīlia sēstertium (or 40 times 100,000 sesterces), more shortly quadrāgiēns sēstertium, or, if the sense is clear, even quadrāgiēns. If the sum was written in figures, thousands were denoted by a line over the figure, and hundreds of thousands by top and side lines. For example, 2,235,417 sesterces is IIS |XXII|XXXVCCCCXVII vīciēns ducenta trīgiutā quīnque mīlia quadringentī decem at septem nummī.

A sesterce was worth about 2d., and 1,000 sesterces may be reckoned as £8 10s. So the above sum is about £19,000.

For further information on the Roman Calendar, coins, weights, and measures, etc., see Roby, Lat. Gr., Vol. I., Appendix D; or Gow’s Companion to School Classics, §§ 86–97.

I. Praenomina.

A.	Aulus	M.	Mārcus	S. or Sex.	Sextus
C.	Gāĭus[4]	M.	Mānlius	Ser.	Servius
Cn.	Gnaeus[5]	Mam.	Mămercus	Sp.	Spŭrius
D.	Dĕcimus	N. or Num.	Nŭmĕrius	T.	Tĭtus
K.	Kaesō	P.	Pūblius	Ti.	Tĭbĕrius
L.	Lūcius	Q.	Quīntus

The praenōmen was the first name of a Roman (answering to our Christian name) as distinguished from his second name, nōmen, which showed his gēns, and his third name, cōgnōmen, which showed the branch or family of the gēns to which he belonged.

II. Other Abbreviations.

A. U. C. Annō urbis condĭtae
Cos. Cōnsul, Cōnsule or Cōnsulēs, Cōnsulibus
D. D. Dōnō dēdit
F. Fllius
HS. (better IIS.) Sēstertius,-a
Imp. Impĕrātor
N. Nĕpōs
N. L. Nōn liquet
P.C. Patres cōnscrīptī
Pr. Praetor or Praetōrēs
Pro C. Prō cōnsule^[6]
Pro Pr. Prō praetōre^[6]
Pro Q. Prō quaestōre^[6]
Q. Quaestor
S. Sălūtem
S. C. Senātūs cōnsultum
S. D. Sălūtem dīcit
S.P.D. Sălūtem plūrĭmam dīcit
S. P. Q. R. Senātūs Populusque Rōmānus
S.V. B.E. E^V. Sī vălēs, bĕne est, ĕgo văleo
V. R. Utī rŏgās

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Addendum on the Supine in -ū.—In its form, the Supine in -ūmay be either an Ablative or a contracted Dative (§ 277) ; and a form in -uī is occasionally found, as pōtuī iūcundum pleasant for drinking [Dat. of the Use Served, § 141 (1)]. Compare also facilis concoctiōnī and facilis concoctū, both meaning easily digestible. But in most instances it is an Ablative ; so with dignus as dictū dīgnum worth telling, and with other Adjectives of the Thing Concerned (§ 151) as nōn tam rē quam dictū mīrābile not so wonderful in the fact as in the telling.

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Printed, by Cassell & Company, Limited, La Belle Sauvage, London, E.C.

1. Sometimes omitted if the other particulars are given.
2. Called Iūlius after B.C. 45.
3. Called Augustus after B.C. 27.
4. Not Caius.
5. Not Cnaeus.
6. The compound words Prōcōnsul, Prōpraetor, Prōquaestor are not found in the best Latin.