of cheapening commodities and hurrying on the accumulation of capital. In most striking contrast with this accentuation of quantity and exchange-value, is the attitude of the writers of classical antiquity, who hold exclusively by quality and use-value.[1] In consequence of the separation of the social branches of production, commodities are better made, the various bents and talents of men select a suitable field,[2] and without some restraint no important results can be obtained anywhere.[3] Hence both product and producer are improved by division of labour. If the growth of the quantity produced is occasionally mentioned, this is only done with reference to the greater abundance of use values. There is not a word alluding to exchange-value or to the cheapening of commodities. This aspect, from the standpoint of use-value alone, is taken as well by Plato,[4] who treats division of labour as the foundation on
- ↑ Amongst the moderns may be excepted a few writers of the 18th century, like Beccaria and James Harris, who with regard to division of labour almost entirely follow the ancients. Thus, Beccaria: "Ciascuno prova coll' esperienza, che applicando la mano e l'ingegno sempre allo stesso genere di opere e di produtte, egli più facili, più abbondanti e migliori ne traca risultati, di quello che se ciascuno isolatamente le cose tutte a se necessarie soltanto facesse.… Dividendosi in tal maniera per la comune e privati utilità gli uomini in varie classi e condizioni." (Cesare Beccaria: "Elementi di Econ. Publica," ed. Custodi, Parte Moderna, t. xi., p. 28.) James Harris, afterwards Earl of Malmesbury, celebrated for the "Diaries" of his embassy at St. Petersburg, saya in a note to his "Dialogue Concerning Happiness," Lond., 1741, reprinted afterwards in "Three Treatises, &c., 3 Ed., Lond., 1772:" "The whole argument to prove society natural (i.e., by division of employments) … is taken from the second book of Plato's Republic."
- ↑ Thus, in the Odyssey xiv., 228, "Ἄλλος γάρ τ᾽ ἄλλοισιν ἀνὴρ ἐπιτέρπεται ἔργοις," and Archilochus in Sextus Empiricus, "Ἄλλος ἄλλῳ ἐπ᾿ ἔργῳ καρδίην ἰαίνεται"
- ↑ "Πολλ' ἠπίστατο ἔργα, κακῶς δ' ἠπίστατο πάντα." Every Athenian considered himself superior as a producer of commodities to a Spartan; for the latter in time of war had men enough at his disposal but could not command money, as Thucydides makes Pericles say in the speech inciting the Athenians to the Peloponnesian war: "Σώμασί τε ἑτοιμότεροι οἱ αὐτουργοὶ τῶν ἀνθρώπων ἢ χρήμασι πολεμεῖν." (Thuc: 1. l. c. 41.) Nevertheless, even with regard to material production, αύταρκεἰα, as opposed to division of labour remained their ideal, "παρ´ ὦν γὰρ τὸ εὗ, παρὰ τούτων καὶ τὸ αὔταρκες." It should be mentioned here that at the date of the fall of the 30 Tyrants there were still not 5000 Athenians without landed property.
- ↑ With Plato, division of lahour within the community is a development from the multifarious requirements, and the limited capacities of individuals. The main point with him is, that the labourer must adapt himself to the work, not the work to the labourer; which latter is unavoidable, if he carries on several trades at once, thus making one or the other of them subordinate. "Οὐ γὰρ ἐθέλει τὸ πραττόμενον τὴν τοῦ πράττοντος σχολὴν περιμένειν, ἀλλ' ἀνάγκη τὸν πράττοντα τῷ πραττομένῳ ἐπακολουθεῖν μὴ ἐν παρέργου μέρει.—Ἀνάγκη.—Ἐκ δὴ τούτων πλείω τε ἕκαστα
East India Trade," bring out the capitalist character of division of labour as applied in manufacture more than A. Smith does.
