APPENDIX 505 of his most influential ministers. Presently he left the world to become a monk and assumed the name of Michael, by which he is generally known. But monas- tic life hardly suited him, and after some years he returned to the world. He played a prominent part imder Isaac Comnenus and Constantine Ducas ; and was "prime minister " during the regency of Eudocia and the reign of Michael Para- pinaces (a pupil who did him small credit). He died probably in 1078. As professor, Psellus had revived an Interest in Plato, whose philosophy he set above Aristotle — a novelty which was regarded as a heresy. In this, he was stoutly opposed by his friend John Xiphilin, who was a pronounced Aristotelian. As young men, Psellus had taught Xiphilin philosophy, and Xiphilin had tavight Psellus law. It was through the influence or example of Xiphilin (who withdrew to the monastery of Bithynian Olympus) that Psellus had assumed the tonsure. Xiphilin, who had written on law in his youth, wrote homilies in his later year.s, and became Patriarch of Constantinople in 1064 ; his old friend Psellus pro- nounced his funeral oration in 1075. For success in the courts of the sovereigns whom Psellus served, candour and self-respect would have been fatal qualities. Psellus had neither ; his writings (as well as his career) show that he adapted himself to the rules of the game, and was servile and unscrupulous. His C'hronography reflects the tone of the time-serving courtier. Beginning at a.d. 976, it treats very briefly the long reign of Basil, and becomes fuller as it goes on. It deals chiefly with domestic wars and court in- trigues ; passing over briefly, and often omitting altogether, the wars with foreign peoples. The last part of the work was written for the eye of Michael Para- pinaces, and consequently in what concerns him and his father Constantine X. is very far from being impartial. The funeral orations which Psellus composed on Xiphilin, on the Patriarch Michael Cerularius (see above, p. 221) and on Lichudes, a prominent statesman of the time, have much historical importance, as well as many of his letters. [The Chronography and these Epitaphioi are published in vol. iv., the letters (along with other works) in vol. v., of the Bibliotheca Grjeca medii aevi of C. Sathas. ] These works are but a small portion of the encyclopaedic literary output of Psellus, which covered the whole field of knowledge. It has been well said that Psellus is the Photius of the eleventh century. He was an accomplished stylist and exerted a great influence on the writers of the generation which succeeded him. [For his life and writings see (besides Leo Allatius, De Psellis et eorum scriptis, 16.34 ; cp. Fabricius, 10, p. 41 sqq.) Sathas, Introductions in op. cit. vols. iv. and v. ; A. Rambaud, Revue Historique, 3, p. 241 sqq. ; K. Neumann, Die Weltstellung des byz. Reiches vor den Kreuzziigen, 1894 ; B. Rhodius, Beitr. zur Lebensgeschichte und zu den Briefen des Psellos, 1892.] Important for the history, especially the military history, of the eleventh century is a treatise entitled Strategicon by C'ecaumenos. Of the author himself we know little ; he was witness of the revolution which overthrew Michael V. , and he wrote this treatise for his son's benefit after the death of Romanus Diogenes. The title suggests that it should exclusively concern military affairs, but the greater part of the work consists of precepts of a general kind. Much is told of the author's grandfather Cecaumeuos, who took part in the Bulgarian wars of Basil II. Joined on to the Strategicon is a distinct treatise of different authorship (by a member of the same family ; his name was probably Niculitzas) : a book of advice to the Emperor " of the day " — perhaps to Alexius Comnenus on the eve of his accession. It contains some interesting historical references. [First pub- lished by B. Vasilievski in 1881 (in the Zhurnal Ministerstva narodnago prosviest- cheniya ; May, June, July), with notes ; text re-edited by Vasilievski and Jernstedt (Cecaumeni Strategicon et incerti scriptoris de offieiis regiis libeUus), 1896.] The latter part of the period covered in the history of Psellus has had another contemporary, but less partial, historian in Michael Attaleiates, a rich advocate, who founded a monastery and a hostelry for the poor (ptocho-
