SOCIOLOGY. 313 SOCIOLOGY. b}' unsanitary conditions in great cities, but it is found also in an iynorant, uncleanly part of the rural population. Tlie defective include the blind, the deaf and dumb, and the congeuitally de- formed. In respect of mentality the population is dif- ferentiated into the normal and the mentally ab- normal or defective. In respect of morality it is dill'erentiated into the moral and the immoral, and in respect of sociality into the social and the unsocial. The mentally normal, the moral, and the social are conveniently divided into the low, medium, and high classes. The mentally ab- normal include the neurotic, e.g. the emotionally unbalanced and the liysterical. the intellectually unbalanced or insane, and the idiotic. The im- moral include those to whom the word is ordi- narily applied, also the vicious and the depraved. Morality is here used to mean objectively that conduct which the community as a whole ap- proves, and subjectively self-respect and that desire for the good opinion of others which Spencer has called ego-altruism. Viciousness is that degree of variation from the prevailing prac- tical resemblance in matters of conduct which the community disapproves and informally pun- ishes. Sociality as here used means objectively a willing and elHcient sharing in the acquaintance and cooperation of society, and subjeetivety al- truism, thoughtfulness for others, sympatln". kindliness, and helpfulness. The opposite of so- ciality is criminality — that degree of variation from the prevailing practical resend)lance in matters of conduct which the community dis- approves and formally ])unishes. The low social- ity class is composed of those in whom the social nature is positive hut undeveloped. In the me- diimi sociality class this nature is highly devel- oped. Those who lielong to this class are so- cialized. In the high sociality class the social nature is developed in the highest degree. Those who belong to this class are both socialized and individualized. They not only participate in al- truistic activities, hut they also plan and lead them. The unsocial include the de-individualized, who contribute nothing to .society, but are de- pendent upon it ; the desoeialized, who have be- come hostile to society and forcibly prey upon it ; and the degraded, who are both de-individualized and desoeialized. The de-individualized include paupers, and the desoeialized include criminals. The supreme achievement of society and the final measure of the success or failure of any State is its contribution of great personalities, great creations of art, great thoiiffhts and ideals, to that universal society which embraces all mankind and endures through the ages of his- tory. Measured by this standard some petty city States, like Athens and Florence, have been among the supreme examnles of social evohition. Htstoricat. Socioi.oot. Tn historical sociology we a sain stuily the phenomena of the social popu- lation, the social mind, the social organization, and the social welfare, but on a larcer scale. We inquire into the evolutionary origins of society and we find that lonsr before man appeared upon the earth social relations had become established in the animal world, and that man undoubtedly bepan his career with an endowment of social instinct. Social relations and mutual aid in- fluenced natural selection, and thereby affected the whole course of animal evolution. Associa- tion in its beginnings, therefore, was zoogenic. Through a further development of association, language, animistic ideas, arts, and religions came into existence, and the animal mind was con- verted into the human mind, and the animal body into the human bod.v. This stage of evolution was anthropogenic. A higher evolution of the con- sciousness of kind created tribal instincts and customs, and gradually built up the highly com- plex system of ethnic society. This was eth- nogenic association. Finally, through the recog- nition of mental and practical resemblance irre- spective of kinship, civil or demotic society came into existence. The demos or people, as distin- guished from the tribe, appeared, and with it civilization. In animal societies all the essential phenomena of a social population may be observed, but those of the social mind are of the most rudimentary sort. There is no social organization beyond the slight beginnings of family life, and a loose formation of bands or flocks. In anthropogenic association the phenomena of the social mind begin to assume importance. Language is a product of association and reacts upon it. Vocal signs become conventionalized through imperfect imitation. The power of con- ceptual thinking, correlated with the evolution of language, is correlated also with association, for every true concept is a ]iroduct of more than one mind. Conceptual thinking and self-con- sciousness enormously multiply the possible re- sponses to stimuli and bring into the conscious- ness of kind all its higher reflective elments. The great problems of ethnogenic association are those of the genesis of family, clan, tribe, and confederation : of the priority of relationship through mothers over relationship through fathers; and of that gradual disintegration of or- ganization based on kinship, by the growth .-.f an essentially feudal association based on personal allegiance, which prepared the way for civiliza- tion. The primitive family, we may now feel reason- ably sure, was an unstable pairing arrangement, usually of short duration. From this form were difl'erentiated polyandry (q.v.) , polygamy (q.v.), and monogamy. (See Family; Marriage.) The steps by which the clan was formed per- haps cannot be quite clearly traced. Primitive man counts relationships in one line of descent only. Tliis fact accounts for the exclusion from the kindred of one-half of all those persons who are equally near in blood. The development of the tribe and the confederating of tribes is a consequence chiefly of warfare, which often brings weak groups under the domination or pro- tection of the strong, or leads related tribes to combine against their common foe. When new tribes are formed by the subdivision of one that has grown too large for subsistence on the tribal domain, families from each clan of the older tribe may go into the new tribe. Tn this way a cluster of tribes may be closely related in blood and speak dialects of a common lanffuage. condi- tions highly favorable to confederation and sub- sequent evolution as a nation. Tribal confederations that have become ciyil States have undercone a further volution, how- ever, which has destroyed many of the chnrnc- teristic features of tribal organization. To begin with, the metronymic system is superseded by
