The American Cyclopædia (1879)/Emigration

by Eaton S. Drone

EMIGRATION (Lat. e, from, and migrare, to depart), the act of leaving the country or place where one has resided, in order to reside in another. The terms emigration and emigrant are strictly applicable only with reference to the country from which the migration is made, and the converse terms immigration and immigrant are used when express reference to the country into which it is made is intended; but in the unlimited sense of change of residence, the former are generally employed in connection with either the old or the new domicile.—Of the earliest migrations by which the fundamental features of European history have been defined, no records remain, but numerous traces of them are found by the archæologist, ethnologist, and linguist. Emigration proper commenced when herdsmen congregated into nomadic tribes. Of such corporate emigration patriarchal history records some examples, as those of Abraham and Jacob. With the progress of agriculture and the growth of more definite political relations, trade, and commerce, began the emigration of single bodies of adventurers to distant countries. In this way, according to Hellenic traditions, Phœnicians, led by Cadmus, and Egyptians, led by Danaus and Cecrops, emigrated to Greece, the Heraclidæ from Greece to Asia Minor, and the Tyrrhenians to Italy. The exodus of the Israelites from Egypt to Canaan was a corporate emigration of a people, on account of religious and political oppression, for which modern history furnishes parallels in the Mormon emigration to Utah and the emigration of the Boers in southern Africa. During the historical times of ancient Greece emigration generally assumed the character of colonization. Many flourishing and powerful Greek colonies were thus sent forth along the shores of the Mediterranean and Black seas by Greece. The colonies of ancient Rome for the most part were rather outposts of an army and combinations of fortune hunters than settlements of men intending to found permanent residences. The great migration of the Germanic nations having destroyed the Roman empire, European society was for centuries subject to constant changes. Charlemagne changed the direction of German emigration from the south to the east and north. While from that time the movements of German nations toward Italy assumed the character of mere military conquests, their emigration conquered nearly the whole country between the Elbe and Vistula rivers from the Slavic race. A counter-current from Asia, which set in at various periods of the middle ages, consisting of Magyars and Tartars, was successfully resisted, and the tide was even turned upon Asia by the crusades; but at a later period another Asiatic race, the Osmanli Turks, succeeded in displacing the most decayed of Christian nations in southeastern Europe, while almost simultaneously still another Asiatic race (the Arabs) was expelled from the southwestern peninsula, Spain, to which they had emigrated eight centuries before.—In Europe, Russia was among the earliest to perceive the advantages of immigration. Peter the Great invited emigrants from all nations to settle in Russia. His successors followed the same policy by granting premiums and valuable privileges, such as exemption from taxation for a certain number of years, exemption from military duty, and free homesteads to colonists. Induced by these advantages, a large number of emigrants from the Palatinate settled in southern Russia about 1784. Immediately after the Napoleonic wars an extensive Germanic emigration to Russia (including Poland) took place. The total number of Germans who emigrated thither between the years 1816 and 1826 is estimated at 250,000. The agricultural colonies of Vielovish in the government of Tchernigov, and Riebendorf in that of Voronezh, a manufacturing colony near Poltava, a Moravian settlement at Sarepta, and a number of German colonies in the Crimea, originated in this way. During the reign of Nicholas emigration to Russia ceased almost entirely, but it revived to a certain degree after the accession of Alexander II.—Individual emigration, as distinguished from the movements of nations, commenced on a large scale after the discovery of America. During the 16th century the nations in which the Roman element predominated, Spain, Portugal, and France, sent forth a great number of emigrants, most of them mere adventurers who did not intend to stay longer than might be necessary to become rich. The first attempts by the English to organize emigration to America likewise originated in adventurous designs. In such attempts 300 men and £40,000 were lost from 1585 to 1590. In 1606 mote than 2,000 emigrants were sent from England to North America to seek for gold, but they perished miserably, and in 1609 but 60 remained. The Hakluyt company for the colonization of Virginia lost 9,000 men and £100,000. At last religious contests laid a firm foundation for the permanent settlement of the North American continent. The emigration of the Puritans and their successful establishment in New England served as an example to all those who in Europe were oppressed for the sake of their religion. Besides, the ground having been broken for the settlement of what are now the southern states of the Union, the fertility of their soil, their genial climate, and withal the still lingering hope of sudden enrichment by discoveries of precious metals, attracted large numbers of colonists. A strong tide of emigration from Germany set in toward Pennsylvania near the end of the 17th and during the 18th century; the Dutch colonized New York; the Swedes Delaware; Canada and Louisiana were settled by the French. Still the current of emigration to America during the 170 years of the colonial history was slow and tedious when compared with that which commenced after the war of independence, and especially when the success of American institutions had been tested by the experience of one generation. Since the formation of the government, the United States has been the principal point of emigration from Europe, and of late also from Asia, owing chiefly to the advantages presented to the laboring classes, who constitute the great bulk of emigrants. Immigration from whatever source has been regarded with favor by the government, and laws have been passed at different times for the regulation of emigrant ships and the protection and comfort of emigrants. During the latter part of the 18th and the early part of the 19th century the practice prevailed in New York and Philadelphia of selling by public auction into temporary servitude emigrants who were indebted for their passage money and other advances. During the last century the prepayment of the passage by the emigrant was the exception, and its subsequent discharge by compulsory labor the rule. Ship owners and ship merchants derived enormous profits from this traffic, as they charged very high rates for the passage and added a heavy percentage for their risks. Adults were sold for a term of from 3 to 6 years, and children from 10 to 15 years. Servants signed indentures and were known as “indented servants.” The last sales of this kind took place in Philadelphia in 1818 and 1819.—During the early part of the present century there was little protection for emigrants during the sea voyage. Ship owners generally chartered the lower decks of their vessels to agents, who made temporary arrangements for the accommodation of the passengers, and either underlet the steerage to associations of emigrants or parcelled it out to sub-agents or to single passengers. These agents crowded emigrants into vessels without regard to their comfort or health, and there was no authority to which the latter could appeal for protection. As late as 1819 the lower deck of an emigrant vessel was no better than that of a slave or coolie ship. The ordinary height of the steerage deck was from 4 to 5 ft.; the lower, or orlop deck, which was also used for the transportation of passengers, was still worse. The natural consequence was a mortality frequently amounting to 10 and sometimes to 20 per cent. The first law which prescribed the space to be allotted to each steerage passenger was that passed by congress in March, 1819, which made it unlawful for a ship to carry more than two passengers for every five tons, custom-house measure. This law, however, did little toward reducing the hardships of the voyage, which was attended with much sickness and many deaths, the prevailing diseases being typhus or ship fever, cholera, and smallpox. In 1855 an act was passed by congress intended to secure the rights of emigrants on shipboard, by giving to each of them two tons of space, and providing for the proper ventilation of the ship, as well as for a sufficient amount of proper food; and this law has resulted in great amelioration. Another circumstance which has largely reduced the suffering and mortality during the voyage is the use of steamers instead of sailing vessels. In 1856 only about 3 per cent. of the emigrants came in steamers, while in 1873 more than 96 per cent. arrived in steamers and less than 4 per cent. in sailing vessels. The deaths in steamers were about 1 in 1,128 passengers, while the death rate in sailing vessels reached the significant ratio of 1 in 65. The port of New York is the great gate through which the emigration to the United States chiefly passes. Of the total number (437,004) of emigrants in 1873, 266,818 entered at New York. Here exists the only thoroughly organized system in the country for their reception and protection. The extortions and frauds which had been practised upon emigrants arriving at New York, as well as the rapidly increasing tide of immigration, led to the passage by the legislature of the act of May 5, 1847, creating the board of commissioners of emigration of the state of New York, which has since been in successful operation. It consists of nine members, six of whom are appointed by the governor of the state with the consent of the senate, and three are members ex officio, viz.: the mayor of New York, the president of the German society, and the president of the Irish emigrant society. All the commissioners serve without compensation. Their duties are to protect alien passengers arriving at New York from fraud and imposition, to care and provide for the helpless among them, to give them trustworthy advice and information, and generally to guard their interests. To provide a fund for this purpose, the owner or consignee of any vessel carrying emigrants to New York is required to give a bond, with a penalty of $300 for each alien passenger, to indemnify the commissioners and the state from any cost that may be incurred for the relief, support, or medical care of the person named in the bond during five years. In lieu of this bond he may pay a commutation, originally fixed at $2 50, but in 1871 reduced to $1 50, for each alien passenger brought into the port. For the more effectual protection of emigrants arriving at New York, an act was passed by the legislature in 1868, by which the commissioners of emigration are invested with authority to examine under oath any witness as to the condition of any ship, and the treatment of the emigrants while on board. The commissioners may also take testimony in reference to any death that may have occurred during the voyage; and such testimony, if made in the presence of the persons complained of, may be used as evidence in any subsequent action. The good intentions of the legislature, however, have not been realized, as the emigrants cannot afford the necessary time and money to enter into a long litigation against rich and powerful companies. The commissioners of emigration have therefore repeatedly and strongly urged congress to negotiate with foreign governments for the appointment of a joint high commission or court for the speedy adjudication of all cases relating to the treatment of emigrants while on board of a ship. Upon the arrival of an emigrant vessel at quarantine, six miles below the city, it is inspected by the health officer of the port, and the sick emigrants, if any, are transferred by steamer to hospitals, where they are cared for by the commissioners of emigration. If removed by authority of the health officers, they are taken to the quarantine hospital, where they are under charge of the quarantine commission. The vessel is then taken in charge by an officer of the department who ascertains the number of passengers, the deaths, if any, during the voyage, and the amount and character of the sickness; he also examines the condition of the vessel in respect to cleanliness, and hears complaints by passengers; of all which he makes reports to the superintendent at Castle Garden. He remains on board the ship during the passage up the bay, to see that the passengers are not interfered with by any unauthorized person from the shore. After examination of their luggage by the customs officers the emigrants are transferred to the landing depot at Castle Garden, which was formerly a fortress defending the port, and was subsequently used as a place of amusement. It was opened as the emigrant landing depot in August, 1855, and is well adapted for the purpose. The emigrants are brought by barge or tng from the vessel in which they arrived, and after examination by a medical officer are ushered into the rotunda, a circular space comprising 50,000 sq. ft., and with a dome in the centre about 75 ft. high. It is well warmed, lighted, and ventilated, and will properly accommodate about 4,000 persons. Here the name, nationality, former place of residence, and intended destination of each individual, with other particulars, are registered. The newly arrived emigrant here finds facilities for supplying every immediate want without leaving the depot. The names of such as have money, letters, or friends awaiting them are called out, and they are put into immediate possession of their property or committed to their friends, whose credentials have first been properly scrutinized. There are clerks at hand to write letters for them in any European language, and a telegraph operator to forward despatches. Here, also, the main trunk lines of railway have offices, at which the emigrant can buy tickets, and have his luggage weighed and checked; brokers are admitted, under restrictions which make fraud impossible, to exchange the foreign coin or paper of emigrants; a restaurant supplies them with plain food at moderate prices; a physician is in attendance for the sick, and a temporary hospital ready to receive them until they can be sent to Ward's island; employment is provided by the labor bureau, connected with the establishment, to those in search of it; such as desire to start at once for their destination are sent to the railway or steamboat; while any who choose to remain in the city are referred to boarding-house keepers admitted to the landing depot, whose charges are regulated under special license, and whose houses are kept under supervision by the commission. Ample facilities for the care of sick and destitute emigrants are afforded by the institutions on Ward's Island, which are under the supervision of the commissioners of emigration. This island comprises about 200 acres in the East river, and extends opposite the city from 100th to 116th street; 121 acres, including the entire water front next to New York, are used for emigrant purposes, and the remaining portion is chiefly used by, the commissioners of public charities and correction. The institutions embrace the hospitals, the refuge, the lunatic asylum, the nursery, dispensary, chapels, schools, workshops, &c. These institutions contain on an average about 2,000 inmates, the most of whom are more or less helpless. The chief building is the Verplanck hospital, which consists of a corridor 450 ft. long and two stories high, from which project five wings each 130 ft. long, 25 ft. wide, and two stories high except the centre wing, which has three stories; the corners of each wing are flanked with towers. It is constructed upon the most approved plans for perfect ventilation, and all necessary comforts for the sick. It has accommodations for about 500 patients, and is used exclusively for non-contagious diseases and surgical cases. A new lunatic asylum has recently been erected, with accommodations for more than 300 patients. The extent of the work done by the commission since its organization is indicated by the fact that of the 5,033,392 emigrants arriving at New York from May 5, 1847, to Jan. 1, 1873, for whom commutation money was paid, and all of whom received protection, advice, and information from the commissioners, 1,465,579 were provided and cared for out of the emigrant fund for a greater or less period during the five years subsequent to arrival, viz.: 398,643 received treatment and care in the institutions of the commissioners; 449,275 were supplied temporarily with board and lodging and money relief in the city of New York; 349,936 were provided with employment through the labor bureau at Castle Garden; 53,083 were forwarded from Castle Garden to their destination in the United States, or returned to Europe at their own request; and 214,642 were relieved and provided for in various parts of the state of New York at the expense of the commissioners of emigration. During 1873, 731 emigrant vessels from 23 different ports arrived at Castle Garden. In the labor bureau employment was procured for 25,325, including 7,504 females. Through the agency of the information bureau, about 12 per cent. of the total arrivals were delivered to their friends. The number cared for in the institutions on Ward's island was 12,586, including 2,134 receiving treatment at the beginning of the year; of this number 10,430 were discharged during the year, and 439 died, leaving 1,717 under treatment Jan. 1, 1874. The expenditures for the year amounted to $466,108, including $215,086 for support of the institutions on Ward's island, $133,451 for expenses at Castle Garden, and $61,188 for buildings and permanent improvements. The current expenses of the commission were $510,306 in 1869, $540,467 in 1870, $518,387 in 1871, and $461,028 in 1872. In addition to these sums, $651,980 were expended during these four years in the erection of buildings and permanent improvements. These expenditures are met by the funds realized from the commutation fund paid by owners or consignees of emigrant ships, which amounted to $657,072 in 1869, $534,056 in 1870, $372,528 in 1871, $442,429 in 1872, and $402,199 in 1873. The emigrants are not considered or treated as paupers, but as persons requiring temporary aid and protection, for which neither the state nor any community is required to contribute. In 1872-'3 bills were introduced into congress to supersede the New York commission of emigration by a national bureau, thus vesting in the general government all control and regulation of this important subject; but the measures met with great opposition from the New York commissioners of emigration and others, and failed.—Prior to 1819 no official record was kept of the number and character of the persons coming to the United States from abroad. The extent of the immigration prior to that date has been differently estimated by various authorities. Mr. Lorin Blodget thought the arrivals did not exceed 4,000 a year from 1789 to 1794. Dr. Adam Seybert estimated the number at 6,000 a year from 1790 to 1810. According to Prof. Tucker, whose estimate is confirmed by high authorities, 50,000 arrived from 1790 to 1800, 70,000 from 1800 to 1810 and 114,000 from 1810 to 1820; making 234,000 from 1790 to 1820. According to Mr. Young, chief of the United States bureau of statistics, the total number of arrivals prior to 1820 was 250,000, of whom 25,000 came between 1776 and 1790. In the following table are indicated the total number of alien passengers arriving in the United States in each year since 1820, and the chief countries from which they emigrated:

YEARS.	England.	Ireland.	Scotland.	Total  British  Isles.	British  America.	Germany.	Prussia.	Holland.	Sweden and  Norway.	France.	Switzerland.	Italy.	Total.
1820[1]	1,782	3,614	268	6,024	209	948	20	49	3	371	31	25	8,385
1821[1]	3,073	1,518	293	4,728	184	365	18	56	12	370	93	62	9,127
1822[1]	856	2,267	198	3,488	204	139	9	51	10	351	110	32	6,911
1823[1]	851	1,908	180	3,008	167	179	4	19	1	460	47	32	6,354
1824[1]	713	2,345	257	3,609	155	224	6	40	9	377	253	41	7,912
1825[1]	1,002	4,888	113	6,983	314	448	2	37	4	515	166	58	10,199
1826[1]	1,459	5,408	230	7,727	223	495	16	176	16	545	245	50	10,837
1827[1]	2,521	9,766	460	13,952	165	425	7	245	13	1,280	297	35	18,875
1828[1]	2,735	12,488	1,041	17,840	267	1,806	45	263	10	2,843	1,592	30	27,382
1829[1]	2,149	7,415	111	10,594	409	582	15	169	13	582	314	16	22,520
1830[1]	733	2,721	29	3,874	189	1,972	4	22	3	1,174	109	8	23,322
1831[1]	251	5,772	226	8,247	176	2,395	18	175	13	2,038	63	28	22,633
1832[2]	944	12,436	158	17,767	608	10,168	26	205	313	5,361	129	2	60,482
1833[3]	2,966	8,648	1,921	13,564	1,194	6,823	165	39	16	4,682	634	1,693	58,640
1834[3]	1,129	24,474	110	34,964	1,020	17,654	32	87	42	2,989	1,389	103	65,365
1835[3]	468	20,927	63	29,897	1,193	8,245	66	124	31	2,696	548	56	45,374
1836[3]	420	30,578	106	43,684	2,814	20,139	568	301	57	4,443	445	107	76,242
1837[3]	896	28,508	14	40,726	1,270	23,036	704	312	290	5,074	383	36	79,340
1838[3]	157	12,645	48	18,065	1,476	11,369	314	27	60	3,675	123	82	38,914
1839[3]	62	23,963	......	34,234	1,926	19,794	1,234	85	324	7,198	607	76	68,069
1840[3]	318	29,430	21	42,043	1,938	28,581	1,123	57	55	7,419	500	28	84,066
1841[3]	147	37,772	35	53,960	1,816	13,727	1,564	214	195	5,006	751	166	80,289
1842[3]	1,743	51,342	24	73,347	2,078	18,287	2,083	330	553	4,504	483	93	104,565
1843[4]	3,517	19,670	41	28,100	1,502	11,432	3,009	330	1,748	3,346	553	108	52,496
1844[1]	1,357	33,490	23	47,843	2,711	19,226	1,505	184	1,311	3,155	839	79	78,615
1845[1]	1,710	44,821	368	64,031	3,195	33,138	1,217	791	928	7,663	471	63	114,371
1846[1]	2,854	51,752	305	73,932	3,855	57,010	551	979	1,916	10,583	698	88	154,416
1847[1]	3,476	105,536	337	128,838	3,827	73,444	837	2,631	1,307	20,040	192	160	234,968
1848[1]	4,455	112,934	659	148,093	6,473	58,014	451	918	903	7,743	319	219	226,527
1849[1]	6,036	159,398	1,060	214,530	6,890	60,062	173	1,190	3,473	5,841	13	208	297,024
1850[4]	5,276	133,806	627	175,485	7,796	63,168	14	576	1,363	8,009	146	360	310,004
1850[5]	1,521	30,198	233	39,604	1,580	14,969	745	108	206	1,372	179	46	59,976
1851[3]	5,306	221,213	966	272,740	7,438	71,322	1,160	352	2,424	20,126	427	423	379,466
1852[3]	30,007	159,548	8,148	200,247	352	143,575	2,343	1,719	4,103	6,763	2,788	297	371,603
1853[3]	28,867	162,649	6,006	200,225	5,424	140,653	1,293	600	3,364	10,770	2,748	267	368,645
1854[3]	48,901	105,931	4,605	160,253	6,891	206,054	8,955	1,534	3,531	13,317	7,953	984	427,833
1855[3]	38,871	56,382	5,275	97,199	7,761	66,219	5,699	2,588	821	6,044	4,433	1,024	200,877
1856[3]	25,904	59,008	3,297	29,007	6,493	63,807	7,221	1,395	1,157	7,246	1,780	962	200,436
1857[3]	27,804	70,211	4,182	112,840	5,670	83,798	7,983	1,775	1,712	2,397	2,080	632	251,306
1858[3]	14,638	34,410	1,946	55,829	4,603	42,291	3,019	185	2,430	3,155	1,056	889	123,126
1859[3]	13,826	43,709	2,293	61,379	4,163	39,315	2,469	290	1,091	2,579	833	764	121,282
1860[3]	13,001	60,692	1,613	78,374	4,514	50,746	3,745	351	298	3,971	913	770	153,640
1861[3]	8,970	33,274	767	43,472	2,069	30,189	1,472	283	616	2,326	1,007	764	91,920
1862[3]	10,947	35,859	657	47,990	3,275	24,945	2,544	432	892	3,142	643	541	91,987
1863[3]	24,065	96,088	1,940	122,799	3,464	31,989	1,173	416	1,627	1,838	690	537	176,282
1864[3]	26,096	89,442	3,476	116,951	3,636	54,379	2,897	708	2,249	3,128	1,396	597	193,416
1865[3]	15,038	77,370	3,037	112,237	21,586	80,797	2,627	779	6,109	3,583	2,889	923	249,061
1866[3]	2,770	83,894	672	131,620	32,150	110,440	5,452	1,716	12,633	6,855	3,823	1,298	318,494
1867[3]	......	108,857	......	125,520	6,014	121,240	12,186	2,223	7,055	5,237	4,168	1,612	298,358
1868[3]	11,107	59,957	1,949	107,582	10,894	111,503	11,567	652	20,420	3,936	3,261	1,402	297,215
1869[3]	55,046	79,030	12,415	147,716	30,921	124,776	22	1,360	41,833	4,118	3,488	2,182	395,922
1870[3]	59,488	75,544	11,820	151,089	53,340	91,168	611	970	24,365	3,586	2,474	2,940	378,796
1871[3]	61,174	61,463	12,135	143,934	39,929	107,201	......	1,122	22,966	5,780	2,824	2,927	367,789
1872[3]	72,810	69,761	14,565	157,905	40,288	155,595	......	2,006	24,992	13,782	4,031	7,239	449,483
1873[3]	69,600	75,848	13,008	159,355	29,508	133,141	......	4,640	29,458	10,813	3,223	7,473	437,004
⁠Total	719,776	2,907,565	124,331	4,319,048	394,216	2,663,437	100,983	38,886	231,344	276,187	71,650	41,636	8,808,141

1. Years ended Sept. 30.
2. 1832 and last quarter of 1831.
3. Years ended Dec. 31.
4. First three quarters.
5. Last quarter.

To obtain the net immigration from the preceding table, about 1⅔ per cent. of the total aliens should be deducted for those not intending to remain in the United States. Those who died during the voyage are included prior to 1867. Prior to 1871 the statements for Germany do not include the emigrants from Prussia and Austria. Since 1819 a law of congress has required that all who come to the sea and lake ports shall be registered at the custom houses. The number, age, sex, nativity, occupation, and destination of all passengers coming to the United States, distinguishing aliens from citizens returning from abroad, and those intending to remain from those who come merely for temporary purposes, are ascertained and reported to the general government. This information is compiled and published annually by the United States bureau of statistics. No official registration is made, however, of those foreigners who enter the country through other channels than the sea and lake ports, many of whom come across the border from Canada and New Brunswick. The following statement shows the principal countries represented in the emigration to the United States from 1820 to 1874, with the total number from each during that period and in 1873:

FROM	1873.	1820 to 1874.
Great Britain and Ireland	159,355	4,319,048
Germany (including Prussia)	133,141	2,764,420
Austro-Hungary	7,835	28,742
Sweden and Norway.	29,458	231,344
Denmark	5,095	34,624
Netherlands	4,640	38,886
Belgium	1,306	19,716
Switzerland	3,223	71,650
France	10,813	276,187
Spain	486	24,876
Portugal	34	5,158
Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, and Malta	7,511	44,684
Greece	37	44,684
Turkey	78	440
Russia, Poland, and Finland	6,466	20,398
Other parts of Europe	9	33
⁠Total Europe	369,487	7,880,469
Azores	1,397	10,187
Other islands of the Atlantic	81	1,060
West India islands	1,974	54,692
British North America	29,508	394,216
Mexico	473	21,722
Central America	34	1,253
South America	168	8,045
China	18,154	144,328
Japan	25	324
Other countries of Asia	40	366
Africa	13	736
Australasia, Pacific, and East India islands.	1,052	4,794
Countries not specified[1]	14,460	285,721
Born at sea	138	362
Total other countries than Europe and countries not stated.	67,517	927,672
⁠Aggregate alien passengers	437,004	8,808,141
⁠Estimated arrivals prior to 1820.	......	250,000
⁠Grand aggregate	......	9,058,141

1. Includes aliens not intending to remain in the United States.

The distribution of sex and age among those arriving for a series of years has been:

SEX AND AGE.	1870.	1871.	1872.	1873.
Number of passengers arrived:
⁠Male	255,540	247,756	299,746	297,162
⁠Female	164,458	167,399	199,077	186,207
⁠Total	419,998	415,155	498,823	483,459
Citizens of the U. S. returning:
⁠Male	26,271	30,138	32,737	30,297
⁠Female	14,931	17,228	16,603	16,158
⁠Total	41,202	47,366	49,340	46,455
Foreigners visiting the U. S.:
⁠Male	14,384	12,890	8,440	10,465
⁠Female	8,109	7,961	3,293	3,994
⁠Total	22,493	20,851	11,733	14,459
Net immigration under 15 years:
⁠Male	42,686	38,665	49,787	47,915
⁠Female	38,621	35,378	49,033	44,444
⁠Total	81,307	74,043	98,820	92,359
Net immigration, 15 to 40 years:
⁠Male	146,662	140,081	173,028	169,473
⁠Female	84,966	88,252	104,911	98,347
⁠Total	231,628	228,333	277,939	267,820
Net immigration over 40 years:
⁠Male	25,537	25,982	35,754	39,012
⁠Female	17,831	18,580	25,237	23,354
⁠Total	43,368	44,562	60,991	62,366
Total net immigration:
⁠Male	214,885	204,728	258,569	256,400
⁠Female	141,418	142,210	179,181	166,145
⁠Total	356,303	346,938	437,750	422,545

The number of foreigners in the United States in 1870, with the places of their birth, is reported as follows in the census of 1870:

Aggregate population	38,558,371
Born in the United States	32,991,142
Born in foreign countries	5,567,229
⁠White	5,493,712
⁠Colored	9,645
⁠Chinese	62,736
⁠Indian	1,136
⁠Not stated	954
Africa	2,657
Asia	864
Atlantic islands	4,431
Australasia	3,118
Austria (proper)	30,508
Belgium	12,553
Bohemia	40,289
British America (total)	493,464
⁠Canada	414,912
⁠New Brunswick	26,737
⁠Newfoundland	3,423
⁠Nova Scotia	33,562
⁠Prince Edward Island	1,361
⁠Not specified	13,469
Central America	301
China	63,042
Cuba	5,319
Denmark	30,107
Europe (not specified)	1,546
France	116,402
Germany (total)	1,690,533
⁠Baden	153,366
⁠Bavaria	204,119
⁠Hamburg	7,829
⁠Hanover	104,365
⁠Hesse	131,524
⁠Lübeck	279
⁠Mecklenburg	39,670
⁠Nassau	8,962
⁠Oldenburg	10,286
⁠Prussia	596,782
⁠Saxony	45,256
⁠Weimar	1,628
⁠Würtemberg	127,959
⁠Not specified	253,632
Gibraltar	77
Great Britain and Ireland (total)	2,626,242
⁠England	550,924
⁠Ireland	1,855,827
⁠Scotland	140,835
⁠Wales	74,533
⁠Not specified	4,123
Greece	390
Greenland	3
Holland	46,802
Hungary	3,737
India	586
Italy	17,157
Japan	73
Luxemburg	5,802
Malta	55
Mexico	42,435
Norway	114,246
Pacific islands	326
Poland	14,436
Portugal	4,542
Russia	4,644
Sandwich islands	584
South America	3,565
Spain	3,764
Sweden	97,332
Switzerland	75,153
Turkey	802
West Indies	6,250
Born at sea	2,638

According to Mr. Young, 46 per cent. of the whole immigration, after deducting the women and children, had been trained to various pursuits, nearly half being skilled laborers and workmen. Nearly 10 per cent. consist of merchants and traders. The occupations of the emigrants arriving in the United States from 1820 to Jan. 1, 1874, are shown in the following table, compiled by the United States bureau of statistics:

OCCUPATIONS.	1820-'30.	1831-'40.	1841-'50.	1851-'60.	1861-'73.	Aggregate.
Laborers	10,280	53,169	281,229	527,639	785,464	1,657,781
Farmers	15,005	88,240	256,880	404,712	318,484	1,083,271
Mechanics, not specified	6,805	56,582	164,411	179,726	176,113	583,687
Merchants	19,484	41,881	46,388	124,149	113,870	345,722
Servants	1,327	2,571	24,538	21,058	130,340	179,834
Miners	341	368	1,735	37,523	70,960	110,927
Mariners	4,995	8,004	6,398	10,087	23,624	53,108
Clerks	882	1,143	1,065	792	22,197	25,979
Weavers and spinners	2,937	6,600	1,303	717	6,945	18,502
Physicians	805	1,959	2,116	2,229	3,766	10,875
Seamstresses, dressmakers, and milliners	413	1,672	2,096	1,065	5,787	11,033
Clergymen	415	932	1,559	1,420	4,118	8,444
Bakers	583	569	28	92	10,247	11,519
Artists	139	513	1,223	615	3,981	6,441
Butchers	329	432	76	108	8,805	9,750
Tailors	983	2,252	65	334	10,871	14,505
Shoemakers	1,109	1,966	63	336	10,660	14,134
Manufacturers	175	107	1,833	1,005	1,917	6,037
Lawyers	244	461	831	1,140	1,861	4,537
Masons	793	1,435	24	58	15,235	17,545
Engineers	226	311	654	825	4,001	6,017
Teachers	275	267	832	154	3,096	4,624
Millers	199	189	33	210	2,286	2,917
Painters	232	369	8	38	4,056	4,703
Printers	179	472	14	40	1,395	2,100
Musicians	140	165	236	188	2,079	2,808
Actors	183	87	233	85	403	991
Hatters	137	114	1	4	385	641
Other occupations	5,466	4,004	2,892	13,884	67,842	94,048
Occupations not stated, and without occupation	101,442	363,252	969,411	1,544,494	2,395,612	5,624,211
⁠Total	176,473	640,086	1,768,175	2,874,687	4,206,350	9,665,771
Deduct citizens of the United States	24,649	40,961	54,924	276,473	460,623	857,630
⁠Aliens	151,824	599,125	1,713,251	2,598,214	3,745,727	8,808,141

In respect of nationality, more than half of those having arrived are British, coming from the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the British possessions in North America, and speaking the English language. The German element is next in magnitude, and embraces nearly two thirds of the remainder. A large proportion settle in rural districts and develop the agricultural resources of the west and south, while the remainder, consisting largely of artisans and skilled workmen, find employment in the cities and manufacturing towns. About 25 per cent. of the emigrants are under 15 years of age, and less than 15 per cent. over 40, leaving more than 60 per cent. in the prime of life. The number of males is largely in excess of that of females, the ratio varying with the nationality. Among the Chinese only about 7 per cent. are females, while their ratio among the Irish is over 45 per cent., and in the total number of emigrants about 40 per cent.—For several centuries there has been a great emigration from China to the surrounding countries, both by sea and land. Vast multitudes of Chinese have settled in Tartary, Thibet, Anam, Siam, Burmah, Malacca, and in Borneo, Java, Sumatra, the Philippine islands, and in short everywhere in the East Indian archipelago. But of these emigrants there are no accurate statistics. Of late years they have made their way in considerable numbers to Australia; and in 1853, attracted by the gold of California, they began to come to the United States, and their immigration has attained a magnitude worthy of attention. The whole number who had arrived up to Jan. 1, 1874, was 144,328, nearly all of whom entered at San Francisco. Most of them have settled in California, where they are occupied chiefly in mining pursuits; but many have found their way to Nevada and some of the territories, and a few to the Atlantic and some of the other states. Nearly one half of all who have arrived have returned to their native country. According to the census of 1870, there were 63,199 Chinese in the United States, of whom only 4,566 were females; there were 49,277 in California, 4,274 in Idaho, 3,330 in Oregon, 3,152 in Nevada, and 1,949 in Montana. The number of arrivals, according to the United States bureau of statistics, is given below; those prior to 1855 are differently reported by another authority in the article China:

YEARS.	No. of  Immigrants.
1853	42
1854	13,100
1855	3,526
1856	4,733
1857	5,944
1858	5,128
1859	3,457
1860	5,467
1861	7,518
1862	3,633
1863	7,214
1864	2,795
1865	2,942
1866	2,385
1867	3,863
1868	10,684
1869	14,902
1870	11,943
1871	6,039
1872	10,642
1873	18,154
⁠Total	144,328

The Chinese emigration to the United States has been characterized by an organized system which is not found in the emigration from any European nation. The latter, as has been seen, is entirely without system or organization, and the emigrant is wholly unrestrained as soon as he reaches his destination. The emigration from China, however, is controlled by men of large capital, who engage in it as a traffic. A contract is made with the emigrants in their native country by which they mortgage their future earnings to secure the cost of passage and other expenses, and which binds them to a specified term of service after arrival in this country. In many instances the Chinaman gives a mortgage on his wife and children, with a stipulation that at the end of his term of service he is to be brought back to China by his contractor. This contract is sold or transferred to an agent in the United States at an advance, and is thus a source of great profit to the dealer. The agent contracts for the labor of the Chinese in any part of the United States. Perhaps the most prominent contractor of this kind has been Mr. Koopmanschap, who sought to introduce Chinese labor under this system into the southern states and other parts of the United States. The contract made in China has no validity in the United States, but it has always been strictly observed by both parties. The following table, from the census of 1870, exhibits the distribution by states and territories of the leading nationalities in the United States:

STATES AND TERRITORIES.	Aggregate  population.	Total  foreign.	British America.	England.	Ireland.	Scotland.	Wales.	France.	Germany.	Holland.	Switzerland.	Norway and  Sweden.
Total of the United States	38,555,983	5,566,546	493,464	550,924	1,855,779	140,835	74,533	116,402	1,690,533	46,802	75,153	211,578
Total of the states	38,113,253	5,472,346	487,605	528,990	1,838,678	136,846	71,907	115,040	1,679,146	46,501	73,972	206,563
Alabama	996,992	9,962	183	1,041	3,893	458	39	594	2,482	14	168	126
Arkansas	484,471	5,026	342	526	1,428	156	24	237	1,563	71	104	154
California	560,247	209,831	10,660	17,699	54,421	4,949	1,517	8,068	29,701	452	2,927	2,944
Connecticut	537,544	113,639	10,861	13,001	70,630	3,238	288	821	12,443	99	492	395
Delaware	125,015	9,136	112	1,421	5,907	229	43	127	1,142	16	33	9
Florida	187,748	4,967	174	399	737	144	6	126	597	7	14	46
Georgia	1,184,109	11,127	247	1,088	5,093	420	61	312	2,761	42	103	49
Illinois	2,539,891	515,198	32,550	53,871	120,162	15,737	3,146	10,911	203,758	4,180	8,980	41,859
Indiana	1,680,637	141,474	4,765	9,945	28,698	2,507	556	6,363	78,060	873	4,287	3,303
Iowa	1,191,792	204,057	17,905	16,660	40,124	5,248	1,967	3,130	66,162	4,513	3,937	28,352
Kansas	364,399	48,392	5,324	6,161	10,940	1,531	1,021	1,274	12,775	300	1,328	5,542
Kentucky	1,321,011	63,398	1,082	2,811	21,642	1,019	347	2,057	30,318	270	1,147	128
Louisiana	726,915	61,827	712	2,797	17,068	814	114	12,341	18,933	232	873	434
Maine	626,915	48,881	26,788	3,650	15,745	998	279	137	508	26	9	149
Maryland	780,894	83,412	644	4,868	23,630	2,432	994	649	47,045	236	297	118
Massachusetts	1,457,351	353,319	70,055	34,085	216,120	9,003	576	1,629	13,072	480	491	21,808
Michigan	1,184,059	268,010	89,590	35,047	42,013	8,552	558	3,121	64,143	12,559	2,116	3,922
Minnesota	439,706	160,697	16,698	5,672	21,746	2,194	944	1,743	41,364	1,855	2,162	56,927
Mississippi	827,922	11,191	375	1,081	3,359	434	25	630	2,960	35	266	1,048
Missouri	1,721,295	222,267	8,448	14,314	54,983	3,283	1,524	6,293	113,618	1,167	6,597	2,599
Nebraska	122,993	30,748	2,635	3,602	4,999	792	220	340	10,954	180	593	2,858
Nevada	42,491	18,801	2,365	2,547	5,035	630	301	414	2,181	44	247	297
New Hampshire	318,300	29,611	12,955	2,687	12,190	892	27	60	436	5	11	97
New Jersey	906,096	188,943	2,474	26,674	86,784	5,710	804	3,130	54,001	2,944	2,061	644
New York	4,382,759	1,138,353	79,042	110,003	528,806	27,282	7,857	22,302	316,902	6,426	7,916	6,497
North Carolina	1,071,361	3,029	171	500	677	420	10	54	904	13	80	43
Ohio	2,665,260	372,493	12,988	36,553	82,674	7,819	12,939	12,781	182,897	2,018	12,727	316
Oregon	90,923	11,600	1,187	1,344	1,967	394	63	308	1,875	39	160	281
Pennsylvania	3,521,791	545,261	10,022	69,668	235,750	16,846	27,633	8,695	160,146	819	5,765	2,381
Rhode Island	217,353	55,396	10,242	9,285	31,534	1,948	56	167	1,201	45	74	128
South Carolina	705,606	8,074	77	616	3,262	310	15	148	2,754	32	45	61
Tennessee	1,258,520	19,316	587	2,085	8,048	555	314	562	4,539	100	802	386
Texas	818,579	62,411	597	2,087	4,031	621	55	2,232	23,976	54	599	767
Vermont	330,551	47,155	28,544	1,946	14,080	1,240	565	93	370	20	19	117
Virginia	1,225,163	13,754	327	1,909	5,191	705	148	369	4,050	231	148	47
West Virginia	442,014	17,091	207	1,811	6,832	746	321	223	6,232	174	325	6
Wisconsin	1,054,670	364,499	25,664	28,192	48,479	6,590	6,550	2,704	162,314	5,990	6,069	42,845
Total of the territories	442,730	94,200	5,859	21,934	17,101	3,989	2,626	1,262	11,387	241	1,181	5,015
Arizona	9,658	5,809	142	134	495	54	3	69	379	11	23	14
Colorado	39,864	6,599	753	1,358	1,685	188	165	209	1,456	17	140	220
Dakota	14,181	4,815	906	248	888	77	3	57	565	8	33	1,559
District of Columbia	131,700	16,254	290	1,422	8,218	352	29	233	4,018	23	175	27
Idaho	14,999	7,855	334	540	986	114	335	144	599	9	52	152
Montana	20,595	7,979	1,172	692	1,635	208	197	193	1,233	18	97	229
New Mexico	91,874	5,620	125	120	543	36	9	124	582	3	42	11
Utah	86,786	30,702	687	16,073	502	2,391	1,783	63	358	122	509	2,403
Washington	23,955	5,024	1,121	791	1,047	309	44	113	645	25	50	262
Wyoming	9,118	3,513	329	556	1,102	260	58	57	652	5	60	137

—The variance in the magnitude of the emigration to the United States in different periods presents results of great interest and importance, and points to the causes that increase or diminish the movement from foreign countries. Chief among these causes are war, political troubles, famine, commercial panics, and other influences which produce distress at home or an unfavorable condition of affairs in the country to which emigration is directed. The most remarkable illustrations of this kind were presented by the great exodus from Ireland and that from Germany during the period 1845 to 1854, when the highest figures till then known in the history of emigration were reached. After the great famine of 1846, the emigration from Ireland to the United States, which had increased from 44,821 in 1845 to 51,752 in 1846, rapidly rose to 105,536 in 1847, 112,934 in 1848, 159,398 in 1849, and 164,004 in 1850. It reached its maximum in 1851, when 221,213 Irish emigrants arrived in the United States; and in the following year it decreased to 159,548. During the period from 1845 to 1854 inclusive, 1,512,100 Irish left their country for the United States, of whom 607,241 came during the first and 904,859 during the last half of the decade. Since 1854 the movement has fallen off to less than one half of the average of the preceding ten years. During this same period the emigration from Germany also culminated. This increase was very marked as early as 1845, when the number of German emigrants was 33,138; in 1847 it reached 73,444; in 1848, 58,014; in 1849, 60,062; and in 1850, 63,168. This disturbance in the ordinary tide of emigration has been attributed to the political revolutions attempted in 1848 and 1849. The increase continued till 1854, when the German emigrants reached the number of 206,054. In discussing the causes of this remarkable exodus Frederick Kapp, for many years a commissioner of emigration, says in his work on “Immigration”: “The coup d'état of Louis Napoleon closed for all Europe the revolutionary era opened in 1848. In the three years preceding that event, the issue of the struggle of the people against political oppression had remained doubtful. But the second of December, 1851, having decided the success of the oppressors for a long time to come, the majority of those who felt dissatisfied with the reactionary régime left their homes. The fact that the largest number of Germans ever landed in one year in the United States came in 1854, showed the complete darkening of the political horizon at that time. The apprehension of a new continental war, which actually broke out a year later in the Crimea, also hastened the steps of those who sought refuge in this country. People of the well-to-do classes, who had months and years to wait before they could sell their property, helped to swell the tide to its extraordinary proportions.” From the beginning of 1845 to the close of 1854 the number of Germans arriving in the United States was 1,226,392, of whom 452,943 came in the first and 773,449 in the last five years. In 1866 and 1867 the tide of German emigration again began to swell, “in consequence,” according to Mr. Kapp, “of the emigration of men liable to military service from the new provinces annexed to Prussia in 1866, and of families dissatisfied with the new order of things.” In 1872 it reached the unprecedented magnitude, except in 1854, of 155,595. The extent of the emigration to the United States, however, is not governed by political events, failure of crops, commercial and industrial crises, &c., acting in Europe alone, but also by the same causes operating in this country. The effects of the great financial crisis of 1837 are indicated in the falling off of the total immigration from 79,340 in that year to 38,914 in the following. And so the commercial crisis of 1857 was followed in the two ensuing years by a smaller immigration than that of any year since 1845; while during the first two years of the civil war (1861 and 1862), the number of aliens arriving was less than that of any year since 1844. Since the close of the war there has been a marked increase. The arrivals amounted to 449,483 in 1872, being more than in any preceding year, and 437,004 in 1873. The northern and western states, chiefly the latter, have been the chosen destination of the great majority of emigrants to the United States. Prior to the civil war there was very little emigration to those states in which slavery existed, except Missouri. Since the war great efforts have been made by the southern and southwestern states to encourage emigrants to settle there, but with only partial success as yet. In many of these states bureaus of emigration have been established or commissioners appointed, for the purpose of preparing reports showing the inducements offered to emigrants. This information is published in various languages and gratuitously distributed in the United States and in Europe. The United States bureau of statistics also publishes information for emigrants relative to the demand and compensation for labor in the several states, the cost of living, the price and rent of land, staple products, market facilities, the cost of farm stock, and such other practical information as the emigrant most needs.—The contribution made by emigration to the population and wealth of the United States has been in the highest degree valuable and important. Its extent, however, is determined only by computation, and different authorities have reached different results. According to Mr. Kapp, who followed the estimate of Mr. Schade that the natural rate of increase in the native population of the United States, exclusive of slaves, had been 1.38 per cent., that population, including white and free colored, would have been 8,435,882 in 1860, and 9,675,041 in 1870; whereas the total white and free colored population, including the foreign element, was 27,489,662 in 1860, while the white population alone in 1870 was 33,589,377. According to this calculation, more than 24,000,000 of the population in 1870 was of foreign extraction. Dr. Jarvis, however, has shown that this proportion is entirely too great, owing in part to the fact that the census reports of the number of births and deaths on which the calculation is based are erroneous. According to the federal census, the number of foreign-born living in the United States was 2,244,602 in 1850, 4,138,697 in 1860, and 5,567,229 in 1870. In the last named year statistics concerning the nativity of parents were collected for the first time, and show that there were 10,892,015 persons having one or both parents foreign, 10,521,233 a foreign father, 10,105,627 a foreign mother, and 9,734,845 both parents foreign. There were therefore 1,157,170 persons of mixed (half American and half foreign) parentage. In measuring the increase of the foreign element, Dr. Jarvis assumes that only one half (578,585) of this number should be added. Deducting this from the census statement, 10,313,430 remain as the surviving number of foreigners and their children of the first generation, as reported by the census of 1870. This, however, does not include the children of the second and third generations, the number of whom Dr. Jarvis determines at 400,000, making the total foreign element in 1870, 10,813,430; American, 22,775,947 ; aggregate white population, 33,589,377. The census reports the total number of surviving foreigners in 1870 and the total of their children born in the United States of entire and half foreign parentage, but gives no indication of the nationality or race of these children. The distribution of the entire foreign element into the chief nationalities has been computed by Dr. Jarvis as follows:

NATIONALITY.	Born in foreign  countries.	Their children  born in U. S.	Total.
Irish	1,855,827	1,775,012	3,630,839
German	1,690,410	1,616,795	3,307,205
British	765,027	731,712	1,496,739
Scandinavian	238,791	228,392	467,183
All others	1,017,074	972,875	1,990,049
⁠Aggregate	5,567,229	5,324,786	10,892,015

According to the report of the United States bureau of statistics, 9,058,141 aliens had arrived in the United States from the foundation of the government to Jan. 1, 1874, of whom 250,000 were estimated to have come prior to 1819. Deducting 1⅔ per cent. for those not intending to remain, the total number of aliens permanently added to the population to the close of 1873 was 8,907,172. Dr. Jarvis has determined the number of foreigners arriving and of those surviving in the United States at decennial periods since 1790. These results are exhibited in the following statement, and it will be seen that the variance is slight from the census returns of foreigners in 1850, 1860, and 1870:

EMIGRANTS ARRIVING IN DECENNIAL PERIODS AND SURVIVING AT THEIR CLOSE.

ARRIVED.		SURVIVING IN
Period.	Number.	1800.	1810.	1820.	1830.	1840.	1850.	1860.	1870.
1790-1800	50,000	44,282	34,732	27,241	21,364	16,755	13,135	10,272	8,179
1800-1810	70,000	.....	61,993	48,623	38,137	29,912	23,796	18,237	14,600
1810-1820	114,000	.....	.....	100,961	79,187	62,109	49,409	37,868	30,315
1820-1830	200,000	.....	.....	.....	177,141	138,940	110,578	84,704	67,810
1830-1840	682,112	.....	.....	.....	.....	611,486	486,450	372,829	298,499
1840-1850	1,711,161	.....	.....	.....	.....	.....	1,552,709	1,190,036	952,685
1850-1860	2,766,495	.....	.....	.....	.....	.....	......	2,421,944	1,938,742
1860-1870	2,424,390	.....	.....	.....	.....	.....	......	......	2,253,548
1790-1870	8,018,158	44,282	96,725	176,825	315,830	859,202	2,236,217	4,135,890	5,564,378
⁠Census	.......	.....	.....	.....	.....	.....	2,244,602	4,138,697	5,567,229
⁠Variance	.......	.....	.....	.....	.....	.....	8,385	2,807	2,851

In reaching the above results, the numbers of the survivors of those who arrived in each decade are calculated at the annual rate of 2.4 per cent. mortality and .976 per cent. surviving for the periods 1790 to 1850, 2.625 per cent. mortality for the period 1850 to 1860, and 2.2 per cent. mortality for the decade 1860 to 1870. This is a very high rate of mortality, especially when it is considered that among the emigrants are included only a small portion of those in the perilous periods of life, the very young and the aged, but that they are chiefly in the healthy ages, when the death rate is low. This, however, may be explained by the fact that they are mostly of the poor, whose death rate is everywhere greater than that of the comfortable classes; and that a large proportion of them are Irish, whose vitality is very low. It would be important to know the capital value of immigration to the United States, and the addition thus made to the national wealth; but this result can only be reached by a computation which will be but approximately accurate. In 1856 the commissioners of emigration in New York examined every emigrant as to the amount of his means, and it was ascertained that the average cash of each of the 142,342 arriving that year was $68 08. This amount, however, was thought to be much below the actual average, since it subsequently appeared that many emigrants, not understanding the object of this inquiry, were careful not to report the full amount of their means. Mr. Kapp estimated the average amount of money brought by each emigrant at $100, and other personal property at $50; total, $150. This estimate, however, is believed by many to be far beyond the facts. Dr. Young estimates the average amount brought by each at $80. Assuming that the 422,545 aliens who arrived in the United States in 1873 with the intention of remaining brought an average of $80 each, it will be seen that the immigration of that year added $33,803,600 to the wealth of the country. Applying the same calculation to the total number of aliens arriving with the intention of remaining from the formation of the government to the beginning of 1874, and the result is about $712,000,000 as the total amount contributed by immigration to the wealth of the country since its origin. In the above computation only the money value of the emigrant is considered, but the economic value of each, arising from the addition to the industrial and intellectual resources of the country, is still greater. Mr. Kapp, taking the estimate of the distinguished German statistician, Dr. Engel of Berlin, that it costs 750 thalers to produce a manual laborer in Germany, and assuming that about double this amount is the cost of an unskilled laborer in America, calculates that the capital value of each male emigrant is $1,500, and of each female $750, making the average for every person of either sex $1,125. Dr. Young, however, considers this estimate to be too high, and makes the average capital value of each immigrant $800. At this rate the emigration to the United States in 1873 added about $338,000,000 to the national wealth, while the increase from this source since the formation of the government is about $7,125,700,000. The uncertainty pf such computations, however, is made still greater by the fact that no allowance is made for unfortunates, paupers, and criminals, who are a charge to the community. These classes of foreigners in 1870 numbered nearly 50,000, as appears by the following statement from the census, showing the total of each class national and foreign in the United States:

CLASSES.	Aggregate.	Born in  United States.	Born in Foreign  Countries.
Blind	20,320	17,043	3,277
Deaf and dumb	16,205	14,869	1,336
Insane	37,382	26,161	11,221
Idiotic	24,527	22,882	1,645
Paupers receiving support June 1, 1870	76,737	53,939	22,798
Number of persons in prison June 1, 1870	32,901	24,173	8,728
⁠Total	208,072	159,067	49,005

—The most extensive European emigration has been from Great Britain and Ireland. According to the report of the land and emigration commissioners, 7,561,285 persons emigrated from the United Kingdom between 1815 and 1873, the principal points of destination being the North American colonies, the United States, and the Australian colonies. The largest proportion of these have been from Ireland. Thus the official reports of the United States show that of the 4,319,048 immigrants from the British isles between 1820 and the beginning of 1874, 2,907,565 were from Ireland, 719,776 from England, and 124,331 from Scotland. Prior to 1815 the emigration from the United Kingdom was unimportant. Up to 1835 the main stream was toward the North American colonies; but since that year the great body of British emigration has been to the United States. Including the foreign emigration passing through the country, which has been considerable since 1864, and constituted 26 per cent. in 1872, it has been:

YEARS.	To the North  American  Colonies.	To the United States.	To the Australian Colonies and  New Zealand.	To other  places.	Total.
1815	680	1,209	......	192	2,081
1816	3,370	9,022	......	118	12,510
1817	9,797	10,280	......	557	20,634
1818	15,136	12,429	......	222	27,787
1819	23,534	10,674	......	579	34,787
1820	17,921	6,745	......	1,063	25,729
1821	12,955	4,958	......	384	18,297
1822	16,013	4,137	......	279	20,429
1823	11,355	5,032	......	163	16,550
1824	8,874	5,152	......	99	14,025
1825	8,741	5,551	485	114	14,891
1826	12,818	7,063	903	116	20,900
1827	12,648	14,526	715	114	28,003
1828	12,084	12,817	1,056	135	26,092
1829	13,307	15,678	2,016	197	31,198
1830	30,574	24,887	1,242	204	56,907
1831	58,067	23,418	1,561	114	83,160
1832	66,339	32,872	3,732	196	103,140
1833	28,808	29,109	4,093	517	62,527
1834	40,060	33,074	2,800	288	76,222
1835	15,573	26,720	1,860	325	44,478
1836	34,226	37,774	3,124	293	75,417
1837	29,884	36,770	5,054	326	72,034
1838	4,577	14,322	14,021	292	33,222
1839	12,658	83,536	15,786	227	62,207
1840	32,293	40,642	15,850	1,958	90,743
1841	38,164	45,017	32,625	2,786	118,592
1842	54,123	63,852	8,534	1,835	128,344
1843	28,518	28,335	3,478	1,881	57,212
1844	22,924	43,660	2,229	1,873	70,686
1845	31,803	58,538	830	2,330	93,501
1846	43,439	82,239	2,347	1,826	129,851
1847	109,680	142,154	4,949	1,487	258,270
1848	31,065	188,233	23,904	4,887	248,089
1849	41,367	219,450	32,191	6,490	299,498
1850	32,961	223,078	16,037	8,773	280,849
1851	42,605	267,357	21,532	4,472	335,966
1852	32,873	244,261	87,881	3,749	368,764
1853	34,522	230,855	61,401	3,129	329,937
1854	43,761	193,065	83,237	3,366	323,429
1855	17,966	103,414	52,369	3,118	176,807
1856	16,378	111,837	44,584	3,755	176,554
1857	21,001	126,905	61,248	3,721	212,875
1858	9,704	59,716	39,295	5,257	113,972
1859	6,689	70,303	31,013	12,427	120,432
1860	9,786	85,700	24,302	6,881	128,469
1861	12,707	49,764	23,738	5,561	91,770
1862	15,522	58,706	41,843	5,143	121,214
1863	18,083	146,813	53,054	5,808	223,758
1864	12,721	147,042	40,942	8,195	208,900
1865	17,211	147,258	37,283	8,049	209,801
1866	13,255	161,000	24,097	6,530	204,882
1867	15,503	159,275	14,466	6,709	195,953
1868	21,062	155,532	12,809	6,922	196,325
1869	33,891	203,001	14,901	6,234	258,027
1870	35,295	196,075	17,065	8,505	256,940
1871	32,671	198,843	12,227	8,694	252,435
1872	32,205	233,747	15,876	13,385	295,213
⁠Agg'te.	1,456,647	4,905,262	1,016,526	182,850	7,561,285

Notwithstanding this great exodus, the population of the United Kingdom increased from 18,627,476 in 1811 to 31,817,108 in 1871. The increase has been steady and constant in England, Wales, and Scotland; but in Ireland there has been a remarkable decrease. In 1841 the population of Ireland was 8,175,124; and in 1851, owing chiefly to the great exodus following the famine of 1846, it had decreased to 6,551,970. In 1861 it was 5,792,055, and in 1871 5,402,759, or more than half a million (535,097) less than it was in 1811. In Great Britain protection is extended by the government to emigrants, especially those destined to the British possessions. Emigration is regulated to a considerable extent by the government, acting through the land and emigration commissioners. Acts have been passed at various times for regulating the number of passengers in each ship and providing for their proper accommodation on board, and for protecting them from the numerous frauds to which they are exposed. To enforce the provisions of these acts, and generally to protect the interests of emigrants, government agents are stationed at the principal ports of embarkation, and at the chief colonial ports to which emigration is directed.—The German emigration is chiefly to the United States, and its principal points of departure are the ports of Hamburg and Bremen. As early as 1819 efforts were made in Brazil to attract emigration from Germany and Switzerland, but the treatment of the emigrants by the large property holders prevented the success of the enterprise. In 1850 an act was passed offering great inducements to colonists, and the immigration of settlers from Europe, particularly Germans and Swiss, has been otherwise encouraged by the government. These efforts have been attended with but partial success, as only about 50,000 persons have settled in the empire, chiefly in the southern provinces. There has been an immigration of some importance during recent years into the Argentine Republic. This amounted for 14 years ending Jan. 1, 1871, to 204,451 persons, who were mostly from Italy, Spain, and France. In order to encourage immigration, the government of Buenos Ayres in 1873 offered a premium of $50 each to the first 100,000 immigrants between the ages of 12 and 45, to be paid at the expiration of 18 months after arrival.—Formerly the doctrine was held by Great Britain and other European powers that a subject could not throw off his allegiance by emigrating therefrom; and whether he became a naturalized citizen of another country or not, his own still retained its claim upon him. Treaties, however, have been recently concluded between the United States and Great Britain, Sweden and Norway, Denmark, Belgium, the late North German Confederation, Austria, Hungary, Baden, Bavaria, Hesse-Darmstadt, Würtemberg, and Mexico, which provide that subjects of these powers who have become naturalized citizens of the United States, and have resided uninterruptedly therein for five years, shall be held to be citizens thereof. The treaties with Belgium and Great Britain do not require a residence of five years within the United States, but recognize citizenship if sooner acquired. It seems to be the opinion of French jurists that a French subject can at any time by his own act transfer his allegiance to any country which consents to naturalize him. He thus, according to the Code Napoleon, “loses the quality of a Frenchman.” Italy, Spain, Norway, and Greece follow substantially the Code Napoleon, and treat nationality as lost by naturalization id a foreign country, or by entering without royal license into its civil or military service. A Russian subject cannot emigrate or become naturalized in a foreign country without the permission of the emperor; if he does so, he commits an offence for which he may be for ever excluded from the Russian dominions. Nor can a subject of the Ottoman empire divest himself of that character without the authority of the imperial government.