A History of Hungarian Literature/Chapter 8
VIII
THE NEW CLASSICAL SCHOOL
Curiously enough, George Bessenyei (1747–1811), the man who was to cause a great literary revival in Hungary, happened to live in Vienna, the very centre from which Germanising influences usually spread towards Hungary.
The Queen-Empress, Maria Theresa, anxious to increase the dignity and splendour of her Court, and also to consolidate the empire, organised a magnificent Hungarian Lifeguard in Vienna. Every Hungarian province was requested to select two representatives, from the most distinguished young gentlemen, and to send them to Vienna. One of the two officers sent by the province of Szabolcs was Bessenyei, a strikingly handsome, stately and chivalrous youth, full of talent and of character, but somewhat lacking in culture. The moment he began to move in the polished circles of the Viennese Court, he became conscious of his shortcomings, and at once began to educate himself.
The new idea of rationalism, originating in Paris, had just begun to spread in Vienna. The cultured men who impressed the young Lifeguard officer, were devoted to the new ideas, and fervently admired Voltaire and the Encyclopedists. To be a Voltairist was the fashion of the day, and formed one of the requirements of bon-ton. No wonder that the impressionable youth was carried away, the more so as he soon acquired a thorough knowledge of German and French, and was able to read the German humanists and French encyclopedists in the original.
This new tendency of the human mind was so revolutionary in its nature, that it naturally hastened the coming of political revolution. The "rationalism" of which men were so enamoured was really a revolt against the authority of mediæval traditions. Religious intolerance, blind submission to authority, superstition, especially that most shameful superstition—the belief in witchcraft—mental and political slavery; all found ardent and brilliantly clever adversaries in the French encyclopedists.
Bessenyei threw himself into the new movement, and in his day-dreams, saw a flourishing Hungarian literature, and a vigorous mental life, with himself, perhaps, as the Voltaire of Hungary, for its centre. In co-operation with a few other Hungarian Lifeguard officers, Bessenyei formed a small literary circle. It was strange that Vienna, the very centre of hostility to every national effort, should be the scene of the revival of Hungarian literature.
Voltaire used the stage as the platform for the dissemination of his ideas. Bessenyei resolved to do the same. His first work, which was published in Vienna in 1772, and which marked the commencement of a new chapter in the history of Hungarian literature, was entitled The Tragedy of Agis. The theme resembles that of a play by the German Gottsched, but Bessenyei follows the form of the French tragic poets. He observes the "three unities," and adopts a contemplative, argumentative style and a refined, courteous tone, but his tragedies lack the psychological basis and the brilliant oratory of the French plays. He imitates Voltaire even in such little peculiarities as putting speeches full of allusions to current events into the mouths of his characters. Attila, for instance, the ancient king of the Huns, speaks against the unlawful power of the priests.
Bessenyei's plays are weak, and he was not very fortunate in his choice of the drama as a means of regenerating Hungarian literature, at a time when there were neither theatres nor actors. Nevertheless he must be honoured as a pioneer, and since his time the history of Hungarian literature has been one of continuous progress. The modern era was inaugurated by him, though perhaps he effected more by his example and enthusiasm than by his talent.
Several other plays of his were published in Vienna. One is Attila and Buda, the theme of which is the hostility between the King of the Huns and his brother Bléda, or Buda; the subject of another is Ladislas Hunyadi, the noble and chivalrous hero, beheaded in the flower of his youth. They are all more or less similar, written in a cold, somewhat stiff style. He was much more fortunate in a prose comedy, The Philosopher, which contains one successful figure, a good-natured, straightforward, but somewhat unpolished country gentleman, the type of a Hungarian landowner. This type, which afterwards figured so largely in Hungarian literature, was first introduced by Bessenyei, but later on greater writers made use of it, and enriched it with many original features.
Bessenyei imitated Voltaire in his prose writings even more than in his dramas. The eighteenth century liked novels containing the meditations of a traveller, where the hero was supposed to visit foreign countries and give 8o HUNGARIAN LITERATORE his reflections upon th eir babits and laws. Bessenyei wrote a novel of this kind, The Tra 'IJels of Ta rimenes. The country visited is the empire of Maria Theresa, which the author praises as the realm of happiness. In the book we m eet Maria Theresa and her enemy Frederi ck the Great, whose army is vanquished by that of the Empress. Voltaire had flattered Frederick the Great . Bessenyei exalted that monarch 's adversary, Maria Theresa. Voltaire was the first author who dealt successfully with the history of civilisation, and Bessenyei followed bim along that line also. He studied English literature as well as French, and tran slated, though crudely, Pope's Essay on Man, white his brother, Alexa nder Bessenyei, translated Milton's Paradise Lost. Alexander had also been enlisted to serve in the Lifeguards, but the gigantic and powerfully-built man had to leave the service because no horse could be found strong enough to carry bim. One of George Bessen yei's merits was his strong ad vo cacy of the fo undation of a H ungarian theatre, and of a scientific acad emy. There was a certain intellectual restlessness in Bessen yei's life, and his ideas fluctuated unaccountably. At first he determined to use his influence at Court on behalf of the H ungarian Reformatio n, then suddenly he became a Roman Catholic. This was, of course, highly appreciated by Maria Theresa, who re warded bim with a sinecure. After her death, however, she was succeeded by her son, Joseph II., an d it is one of life's littie ironies that this eminent and enlightened ruler deprived the apostle of rationalism of the post which he had gai ned more by his apo stasy than by his activity and merits. What could Bessenyei do now, disgraced by his monarch, and an object of suspicion in the eyes of his fellow THE NEW CLASSICAL SC HOOL 81 offi.cers ? He could not stay in Vienna, so he returned to Hungary and retired to his estate, where he lived a lonely life, shut up with his books. As a Voltairian, he never went to church, and wh en he died, he was buried without any religiaus ceremony. His tomb is not in the churchyard, but in a garden under a tree. During the last few years of his life, H ungarian literatore had begun to take a new direction. Among those who were stirred into activity by Bessenyei were the clergy, and their superior literary education made them important factors in Hungarian life. Their studies were chiefty classical, so that when once th ey began to write, they naturally took the classical poets, and especially Horace, for their models. It must be remembered that during the eighteenth century Latin was so largely used in Hungary that it might almost have been regarded as a living language . In the history of Hungarian literature, the poets wh o followed Latin models are designated by the name of u Th e Classical Poets." Their works, l ike most modern works in imitation of the Latins, are stiff, cold, somewhat too abstract, and naturally full of mythological allu-.;ions. The most noteworthy . of the group was a monk of the Order of St. Paul, Be nedict Virág, the u H ungarian Horace.' ' He was full of genuine enthusiasm for what the Latins called virlus, but his poems impressed other poets rather than the general public. Before poetry could make any further progress, it was necessary to settie the rules of prosody. Hungarian poetry, like that of al l modern nations, is based upon accentual rhythm, but when, in the sixteenth century, John Erdősi (or, in accordance with the latinising fashion of his day, John Sylvester) tried to imitate Latin verses, wh ich are founded F on length of syllable instead of accent, the result was surprisingly good. The Hungarian language has proved to be much better adapted to the rules of Latin prosody than any other European tongue. It is well known that Hungarian hexameters are just as melodious, and as perfect from the point of view of prosody, as the Latin verses. Just because the result of this first essay was so satisfactory, Latin metres and stanzas had been largely used before the .poets of the classical school commenced their activity, but it was they who first elaborated the rules for this kind of poetry.
We have seen that Bessenyei and his followers imitated the French Encyclopedists, while Virág and the other classical poets chose Horace for their model.
But there was another group of writers who turned neither to Rome nor to Paris for their models, who wished to wear neither the Roman togá nor the Freneh culotte courte, but desired to remain national in their taste and garments. Those writers formed what was called the "National School." The wars of Rákóczy, and later on the tyrannical germanising efforts of Joseph II., stirred the national feeling and awakened men to the need of that sentiment, and strengthened the love of liberty and independence. "Down with foreign fashions! Down with foreign models! Let us be national in all things. If we must imitate, then let us find our models among the old Hungarian poets, such as Gyöngyössi."
The most prominent member of the school was a valiant Hussar General, Count Joseph Gvadányi (1725-1801). His family was originally Italian (Guadagni) but he became thoroughly Hungarian both as patriot and as writer. As an officer in a Hussar regiment, he took part THE NEW CLASSICAL SCHOOL 83 in the Seven Years War, and had a share in that brilliant and daring military adventore of 175 7, when General Andrew Hadik suddenly made his appearance before Berlin with his troops, amongst whom were twelve bundred Hungarian Hussars, and so great was the fright occasioned by the u nexpected attack that the terrified town consented to open i ts gates and pay tribute.• Gvadányi wrote most of his works afte r he had retired from active servic e on a pension. The best known, A. Notary's 'Journey to Buda (179o), is a long narrative poem. It strikes the reader as entirely free from imitation, as sincere, and whoily national. The characters and the whole atmasphere of the poem are purely Hungarian. This accounts for the immediate popularity of the · book. A country notary, an honest but inex perienced man, travels on horseback to Buda. After many amosing adve ntures he · · arríves at his destina tion, but to his great disappointment he sees that in the very capital of the country, which ought to be th e fountain-head of the national spirit, everything is foreign, the language the people speak, the books they read, the garments they wear, and even the measures they dan ce. People recognised thernselves in the various characters, for the reign of J oseph I I. had greatly tended to germanise Hungary. The notary bimself is a well-drawn type of the patriotic Hungarian of that day, with his fervent national feeling, Latin education, scanty experience and littie practical knowledge. The centre of the awakening national life was the town
- An anecdote tells us that wben the General left Berlin he wished,
as an act of courtesy, to take home with bim a present for Maria Theresa. The present was to take the form of a dozen pairs of fine gloves, but the apiteful glover sold bim twenty·four lehand glovea. 80 HUNGARIAN LITERATURE his reflections upon their habits and laws. Bessenyei wrote a novel of this kind, The Travels of Tarimenes. The country visited is the empire of Maria Theresa, which the author praises as the realm of happiness. In the book we meet Maria Theresa and her enemy Frederick the Great, whose army is vanquished by that of the Empress. Voltaire had flattered Frederick the Great. Bessenyei exalted that monarch's adversary, Maria Theresa. Voltaire was the first author who dealt successfully with the history of civilisation, and Bessenyei followed him along that line also. He studied English literature as well as French, and translated, though crudely, Pope's Essay on Man, while his brother, Alexander Bessenyei, translated Milton's Paradise Lost. Alexander had also been enlisted to serve in the Lifeguards, but the gigantic and powerfully-built man had to leave the service because no horse could be found strong enough to carry him. One of George Bessenyei's merits was his strong advo- cacy of the foundation of a Hungarian theatre, and of a scientific academy. There was a certain intellectual restlessness in Bessen- yei's life, and his ideas fluctuated unaccountably. At first he determined to use his influence at Court on behalf of the Hungarian Reformation, then suddenly he became a Roman Catholic. This was, of course, highly appreciated by Maria Theresa, who rewarded him witlh a sinecure. After her death, however, she was succeeded by her son, Joseph II., and it is one of life's little ironies that this eminent and enlightened ruler deprived the apostle of rationalism of the post which he had gained more by his apostasy than by his activity and merits. could Bessenyei do now, disgraced by his monarch, and an object of suspicion in the eyes of his fellow What THE NEW CLASSICAL SC HOOL 85 But he did not copy the playfully amoraus galanteric of the Greek poet ; he substituted his own strong, sincere feelings. Anather feature of the age was a passion for solitude. Thoughtful persons, it is true, had always found pleasure in escaping fro m the noise a nd bustie of town life to the quiet and !>Olitude of Nature, but in the eigh teenth cen tury, the influence of Rousseau raised that sentiment to the level of a cult, and some of Csokonai's finest poems are in praise of solitude. Undoubtedly stimulated by Rousseau, his inspiration, however, came direct from the beauties of Lake Balaton, wh ich plays the same part in H ongarian poetry as the lakes of Westmare land in English . The public taste was also powerfully impressed by Pope's Rape of the Lock, and, influen ced by the English poet, Csokonai wrote a cornic epic entitled Dorothy, or the Dames' Victory over Prittce Camival. He did not, how ever, adopt the satirical style of Pope, but displayed the burlesque, and at times rude, cornic character of th e . society with which he was acquainted . He travesties certain details of the great world-epics in an inimitably amusing way. The godde.ss of strife, Eris, causes quarrelling amon g the guests at a ball, and they divide into two parties and attack one another. One party, that of the old maids, is headed by Dorothy. What is their grievance agai nst Prince Carnival ? That the time of C arnival is too short, and there are not enough weddings. They also wish to obtain possession of the register of their births, and even the young women join them. ln the course of the strife, Venus arrives, and rej uvenating aU the old maids, recen ciles them with the rest of the world, and they ali marry. Csokonai was the first to introduce the tone of the old popular songs into literature at a time when they were ignored or despised by persons of culture. Csokonai died at the early age of thirty-two. It is said of Correggio that one of his own masterpieces caused his death, and Csokonai lost his life through his activity as a writer and speaker. He had written a poem On Immortality, for the occasion of the funeral of a distinguished lady ; he read it himself in the churchyard during the ceremony, thereby taking a severe chill which soon proved fatal. A curious controversy known as the Arcadian Coniroversy arose after his death, amusing on account of the naïve ignorance it displayed. Kazinczy suggested as an epitaph to be engraved on the poet's tombstone the words : "I, too, have been in Arcadia." The poet's fellow townsmen, the worthy, matter-of-fact burgesses of Debreczen, did not know what it meant. They looked up the name Arcadia in Barthélemy's popular Le Jeune Anacharsis, and there discovered the following state- ment : "In Arcadia there were excellent fields for the rearing of domestic animals, especially asses." They felt hurt, and the ensuing controversy would have furnished a suitable theme for Csokonai's muse. Another of the burgesses of Debreczen was Michael Fazekas (1760-1819). He took part as an officer in the wars against Napoleon and went to France. Once he and his victorious soldiers entered a French château, which they were entitled to pillage. But Fazekas went straight to the library, sat down, read there for a few hours, put back the book he had been reading, and left without taking a single thing. The influence of French literature may be seen in his works. A comic narrative poem, though written in THE NEW CLASSICAL SC HOOL 87 foreign-looking hexameters, became very popular. In this he made use of a well-known Freneh story1 which, in accordance with the new revolutionary ideas, sicled with the serf agai nst the lord. Two or three decades after Fazekas, Claude Tillier employed the same story in his humorous novel : Mon oncle Benja min. A heart tess landowner robs, with violence, a you ng peasant, takes his geese and sends them to market, and has the lad flogged. The peasant deterrnines to pay back this flogging three-fold, and does so. First he disguises bim self as a wood-cutter and induces the nobleman to follow him into the wood to select timber, and there ftogs bim. Next he gains admittance to his room as an itinerant physician and flogs bim a secon d time. After this the nobleman does not dare to go anywhere without his atten dants, but on one occasion a man whom he meets tel is him that he could help bim to capture th e wicked peasant if the attendants were sent to a certain place which he points out. They accordingly go, leaving their master alone, when the man throws off his disguise and flogs the nobleman for the third time. The peasant's revenge has a moral effect. The beartless landowner confesses his fault and amends his ways.