Dictionary of Spoken Russian/Russian-English/Section 3

§3. ALTERNATION OF SOUNDS

In this Section we shall describe alternations of sounds that are not shown in the spelling; in §4 we shall describe those which appear also in the spelling of words:

Voiced and Unvoiced Mutes. Certain of the Russian consonants, which we call mutes, are classed in pairs. In each pair of mutes one is voiced and one is unvoiced:

Voiced	Unvoiced
b	p
bj	pj
d	t
dj	ti
dz	c
g	k
gj	kj
h	y
hj	xj
j	č
v	i
vj	fj
z	z
zj	sj
ž	š
žj	šč

The remaining consonants [l, m, n, r, y,] are non-mutes.

Final Mutes. At the end of a Russian word, as it is spoken alone, only unvoiced mutes occur. When an unvoiced mute comes to be at the end of a word, it is unchanged: пилоты [pjiloti] "pilots," пилот [pjilot] "pilot"; мосты [masti] "bridges," мост [most] "bridge"; души [duči] "shower baths," душ [duš] "shower bath." But when a voiced mute comes to be at the end of a word, it is replaced by the corresponding unvoiced mute. This is not shown in the writing: деды [djedi] "grandfathers," дед [djet] "grandfather"; поезди [p'yizda] "trains," поезд [poy'st] "train"; ножи [naži] "knives," нож [noš] "knife."

But when words belong closely together in a phrase, a final mute is replaced by the corresponding voiced mute, if the next word begins with a voiced mute other than [v]: брат [brat] "brother," брат ушёл [brat ušol] "the brother went away," брат молился [brat maljilsa] "the brother prayed," брат пошёл [brat pašol] "the brother went there," but брат забыл [brat zabil] "the brother forgot." Similariy, дед [djet] "grandfather," дед ушёл [djet ušol] "the grandfather went away," but дёд забыл [djet zabil] "the grandfather forgot"; бог [box] "God," but бог даст [boh dast] "the Lord will grant it." The sound [v] does not produce this effect: брат вошёл [brat vašol] "the brother came in," дед вошёл [djet vašol] "the grandfather came in." This is the only use of the sounds [dz, j]: отец [atjec] "father," отeц думал [atjedz dum'l] "the father thought"; дочь [doč] "daughter," дочь забыла [doj zabila] "the daughter forgot."

Clusters of Mutes. Within a word the same habit prevails, and is not shown in the spelling. Thus, beside просить [prasjitj] "to request," there is просьба [prozjba] "a request." Similarly, the prefix от- [ot-] appears in отнять [atnjatj] "to take away," отбросить [adbrosj'tj] "to throw off," отдать [addatj] "to give back." Before [v] the unvoiced mute remains: ответ [atvjet] "answer."

Within a word, a voiced mute is replaced by the corresponding unvoiced mute whenever any unvoiced mute immediately follows: труба [truba] "tube," but трубка [trupka] "pipe"; ложечка [lož'čka] "little spoon," but ложка [loška] "spoon"; лягу [ljagu] "I shall lie down," but лягте (ljaktji] "lie down." This is not shown in the writing; only prefixes that end with з are written with с before unvoiced mutes: разбить [razbjitj] "to break," but раскрыть [raskritj] "to uncover," расстроить [rasstroy'tj] "to disorder" (from строить [stroy'tj] "to build"). In some words [g] is replaced by [x] (instead of [k]) before an unvoiced mute: коготь [kog'tj] "claw," когти [koxtji] "claws"; лёгок [ljog'k] "he is light of weight," лёгкий [ljoxk'y] "light of weight."

Prepositions which end in a mute present a special case, because Russian prepositions are spoken as if they were part of the following word. A preposition which ends in a unvoiced mute follows the general rule: the mute is voiced before voiced mutes other than [v]: от отца [at atca] "from the father," от сына [at sina] "from the son," от врага [ad vraga] "from the enemy," but от брата [ad brata] "from the brother," от дочери [ad doč'rji] "from the daughter." But a preposition which ends in a voiced mute has an unvoiced mute only before unvoiced mute and keeps the voiced mute before all other sounds: под столом [p't stalom] "under the table," but под окном [p'd aknom] "under the window," под ножом [p'd nažom] "under the knife," под бумагой [p'd bumag'y] "under the paper"; similarly, в комнате [f komn'tji] "in the room," в городе [v gor'dji] "in the city," в армии [v armj'yi] "in the army."

Changes of [s] and [z]. Within a word or when words come together in a phrase, the sounds [s, z] combine with following [č] into the long soft [š] sound [šč], but this is not shown in the writing: возить [vazjitj] "to cart," but мзвозчик [izvošč'k] "cabman," чёт [čot] "even number" with prefix с- gives счёт [ščot] "account, bill."

When [s, z] come before [š] they are replaced by [š]: шить [šitj] "to sew" with prefix с- gives сшить [ššitj] "to sew up"; из шёлку [iš šolku] "out of silk" has long [šš]. Before [ž] they are replaced by [ž]: жечь [žeč] "to burn" with prefix с- gives сжечь [žžeč] "to burn up"; из журнала [iž žurnala] "out of a magazine" has long [žž].

Changes of [č]. The sound [č] before [n] is often replaced by [š]: скучать [skučatj] "to be bored," but скучно [skusna] "tiresome." In less common words the [č] is often kept. In the dictionary we indicate the change in the words where it is most commonly made: скучно [-šn-].

Weakening of Vowels. In unstressed syllables, vowels are weakened, shortened, and slurred. In all unstressed syllables the distinction between [a] and [o] is lost. The weakening of unstressed vowels is not shown in the spelling, except for a few instances. The chief exception is this: that the letter о, which is used, when accented, in some words after ж, ц, ч, ш, щ, is never used after these letters when it is unstressed; after these letters only е is written for the stressed varieties of [o]. Thus the ending [-om] when unstressed is written with о in such forms as ножом [nažom] "with a knife," с отцом [s atcom] "with the father," but when unstressed it is written with е in such forms as массажем [masaž'm] "by massage," с перцем [s pjerc'm] "with pepper." Except for this, and except for a few special cases, each vowel is written as if it is were in a stressed syllable and has its full sound.

Unstressed vowels are weakened in four different positions:

1. At the beginning of a word, unstressed vowels are shortened, and [o] is replaced by short [a]: адрес [adrj's] "address":

адреса [adrjisa] "addresses"
экспорт [ekspo'rt] or [eksport] "export"
ищет [išč't] "he seeks": ишу [išču] "I seek"
отпуск [otp'sk] "leave": отпускать [atpuskatj] "to grant leave"
ум [um] "intelligence": уметь [umjetj] "to know how"

2. At the end of a word, unstressed vowels are greatly weakened and shortened: [a] and [o] are alike, and [e] and [i] are alike.

After hard consonants, final unstressed [a, o] sound like the final vowel of English words like sofa; [e, i] have a short sound like the dull variety of Russian [i]:

ending [-a]: семья [sjimjya] "family," but няня [njanja] "nurse"
ending [-o]: ружьё [ružyo] "gun," but поле [polja] "field"
ending [-e]: на столе [n' stalje] "on the table," but на стуле [na stulji] "on the chair"
ending [-i]: очки [ačkji] "eyeglasses," but руки [rukji] "hands"
ending [-u]: даю [dayu] "I give," but знаю [znayu] "I know"

After soft consonants (including ч, щ) and after ж, ц, ш, the letter е is used for final unstressed [o] and for final unstressed [e], although the two sound quite different: поле [polja] "field" (sounds exactly like поля "of the field"), but в поле [f polji] "on the field"; сердце [sjerca] "heart" (exactly like сердца "of the heart"), but в сердце [f sjerci] "in the heart." In such cases the grammar shows whether the ending is [o] or [e].

3. In the syllable immediately before the stressed syllable, vowels are somewhat shortened.

After hard consonants other than [š, ž], the vowels [a, o] coincide as a short [a] and the vowels [e, i] as a short dull [i]:

страны [strani] "countries": страна [strana] "country" ноги [nogji] "feet": нога [naga] "foot"
цены [ceni] "prices": цена [cina] "price"
был [bil] "he was": была [bila] "she was"
руки [rukji] "hands": рука [ruka] "hand"

After [š, ž], all four of the vowels [a, o, e, i] coincide in a short dull [i] sound, with the lips slightly rounded:

шар [šar] "sphere": шары [širi] "spheres"
жёны [žoni] "wives": жена [žina] "wife"
шесть [šestj] "six": шестнадцать [šisnatc'tj] "sixteen"
жил [žil] "he lived": жила [žila] "she lived"
шум [šum] "noise": шуметь [šumjetj] "to be noisy"

After soft consonants, [a, o, e, i] coincide in a short sharp [i] sound:

час [čas] "hour": часы [čisi] "clock"
сёла [sjola] "villages": село [sjilo] "village"
свечи [svječi] "candles": свеча [svjiča] "candle"
винт [vjint] "screw": винты [vjinti] "screws"
любит [ljubj't] "he loves": люблю [ljublju] "I love"

4. In all other unstressed syllables (that is, after the stress when not final, and two or more syllables before the stress when not initial), the vowels are extremely short and weak; we write them with small raised letters [', ', '].

After hard consonants other than [š, ž] the vowels [a, o] here coincide in a very short sound, somewhat like the English u in circus; [e, i] coincide in a very short dull [i]:

ending [-atj]: читать [čitatj] "to read," but делать [djel'tj] "to do"
головы [gol'vi] "heads": голова [g'lava] "head"
целый [cel'y] "whole": целиком [c'ljikom] "entirely"
сын [sin] "son": сыновья [s'navjya] "sons"
ending [-ut]: идут [idut] "they are going," but едут [yed't] "they are riding"

After [š, ž], the vowels [a, o, e, i] here coincide in a very weak dull [i] sound:

ending [-atj]: мешать [mjišatj] "to disturb," but слышать [slis'tj] "to hear"
ending [-ot]: стрижёт [strjižot] "he shears," but может [mož't] "he is able"
жечь [žec] "to burn": выжечь [viž'c] "to burn out"
ending [-it]: страшит [strašit] "he frightens," but слышит [sliš't] "he hears"
шум [šum] "noise": шумовой [š'mavoy] "noisy"

In this position, however, [a, o] at the beginning of case endings appear as a weak [']: на крышах [na kriš'x] "on the roofs."

After soft consonants, [a, o, e, i] here coincide in a very short sharp [i]:

ending [-atj]: гулять [guljatj] "to stroll," but чуять [čuy'tj] "to scent"
ending [-ot]: идёт [idjot] "he is going," but едет [yedj*t] "he is riding"
ending [-etj]: глядеть [gljidjetj] "to look," but видеть [vjidj'tj] "to see"
ending [-it]: глядит [gljidjit] "he looks," but видит [vjidj't] "he sees"
ending [-ut]: узнают [uznayut] "they recognize," but узнают [uznay't] "they will recognize"

Weakening and Loss of [y]. Before [i] the sound [y], when not initial, is weak or drops out entirely: стоит [stayit] "he stands," стоит [stoy't] "it costs." We write it in our modified alphabet, since this simplifies our grammatical statements and causes no ambiguity.