Enquiry into Plants/Volume 1/Chapter 2

by Theophrastus

The essential parts of plants, and the materials of which they are made.

Now the differences in regard to parts, to take a general view, are of three kinds: either one plant may possess them and another not (for instance, leaves and fruit), or in one plant they may be unlike in appearance or size to those of another, or, thirdly, they may be differently arranged. Now the unlikeness between them is seen in form, colour, closeness of arrangement or its opposite, roughness or its opposite, and the other qualities; and again there are the various differences of flavour. The inequality is seen in excess or defect as to number or size, or, to speak generally,^[1] all the above-mentioned differences too are included under excess and defect: for the 'more' and the 'less' are the same thing as excess and defect, whereas 'differently arranged' implies a difference of position; for instance, the fruit may be above or below the leaves,^[2] and, as to position on the tree itself, the fruit may grow on the apex of it or on the side branches, and in some cases even on the trunk, as in the sycamore; while some plants again even bear their fruit underground, for instance arakhidna^[3] and the plant called in Egypt uingon; again in some plants the fruit has a stalk, in some it has none. There is a like difference in the floral organs: in some cases they actually surround the fruit, in others they are differently placed^[4]: in fact it is in regard to the fruit, the leaves, and the shoots that the question of position has to be considered.

Or again there are differences as to symmetry^[5]: in some cases the arrangement is irregular, while the branches of the silver-fir are arranged opposite one another; and in some cases the branches are at equal distances apart, and correspond in number, as where they are in three rows.^[6]

Wherefore the differences between plants must be observed in these particulars, since taken together they shew forth the general character of each plant.

But, before we attempt to speak about each, we must make a list of the parts themselves. Now the primary and most important parts, which are also common to most, are these—root, stem, branch, twig; these are the parts into which we might divide the plant, regarding them as members,^[7] corresponding to the members of animals: for each of these is distinct in character from the rest, and together they make up the whole.

The root is that by which the plant draws its nourishment, the stem that to which it is conducted. And by the 'stem' I mean that part which grows above ground and is single^[8]; for that is the part which occurs most generally both in annuals and in long-lived plants; and in the case of trees it is called the 'trunk.' By 'branches' I mean the parts which split off from the stem and are called by some 'boughs.'^[9] By 'twig' I mean the growth which springs from the branch regarded as a single whole,^[10] and especially such an annual growth.

Now these parts belong more particularly to trees. The stem however, as has been said, is more general, though not all plants possess even this, for instance, some herbaceous plants are stemless; others again have it, not permanently, but as an annual growth, including some whose roots live beyond the year.^[11] In fact your plant is a thing various and manifold, and so it is difficult to describe in general terms: in proof whereof we have the fact that we cannot here seize on any universal character which is common to all, as a mouth and a stomach are common to all animals; whereas in plants some characters are the same in all, merely in the sense that all have analogous^[12] characters, while others correspond otherwise. For not all plants have root, stem, branch, twig, leaf, flower or fruit, or again bark, core, fibres or veins; for instance, fungi and truffles; and yet these and such like characters belong to a plant's essential nature. However, as has been said, these characters belong especially to trees, and our classification of characters belongs more particularly to these; and it is right to make these the standard in treating of the others.

Trees moreover shew forth fairly well the other features also which distinguish plants; for they exhibit differences in the number or fewness of these which they possess, as to the closeness or openness of their growth, as to their being single or divided, and in other like respects. Moreover each of the characters mentioned is not 'composed of like parts'^[13]; by which I mean that though any given part of the root or trunk is composed of the same elements as the whole, yet the part so taken is not itself called 'trunk,' but 'a portion of a trunk.' The case is the same with the members of an animal's body; to wit, any part of the leg or arm is composed of the same elements as the whole, yet it does not bear the same name (as it does in the case of flesh or bone^[14]); it has no special name. Nor again have subdivisions of any of those other organic parts^[15] which are uniform special names, subdivisions of all such being nameless. But the subdivisions of those parts^[16] which are compound have names, as have those of the foot, hand, and head, for instance, toe, finger, nose or eye. Such then are the largest^[17] parts of the plant.

II. Again there are the things of which such parts are composed, namely, bark, wood and core (in the case of those plants which have it^[18]), and these are all 'composed of like parts.' Further there are the things which are even prior to these, from which they are derived—sap, fibre, veins, flesh: for these are elementary substances—unless one should prefer to call them the active principles of the elements; and they are common to all the parts of the plant. Thus the essence^[19] and entire material of plants consist in these.

Again there are other as it were annual parts, which help towards the production of the fruit, as leaf, flower, stalk (that is, the part by which the leaf and the fruit are attached to the plant),^[20] and again tendril,^[21] 'catkin' (in those plants that have them). And in all cases there is the seed which belongs to the fruit: by 'fruit' is meant the seed or seeds,^[22] together with the seed-vessel. Besides these there are in some cases peculiar parts, such as the gall in the oak, or the tendril in the vine.

In the case of trees we may thus distinguish the annual parts, while it is plain that in annual plants all the parts are annual: for the end of their being is attained when the fruit is produced. And with those plants which bear fruit annually, those which take two years (such as celery and certain others^[23]) and those which have fruit on them for a longer time—with all these the stem will correspond to the plant's length of life: for plants develop a stem at whatever time they are about to bear seed, seeing that the stem exists for the sake of the seed.

Let this suffice for the definition of these parts: and now we must endeavour to say what each of the parts just mentioned is, giving a general and typical description.

The sap is obvious: some call it simply in all cases 'juice,' as does Menestor^[24] among others: others, in the case of some plants give it no special name, while in some they call it 'juice,' and in others 'gum.' Fibre and 'veins,'^[25] have no special names in relation to plants, but, because of the resemblance, borrow the names of the corresponding parts of animals. ^[26]It may be however that, not only these things, but the world of plants generally, exhibits also other differences as compared with animals: for, as we have said,^[27] the world of plants is manifold. However, since it is by the help of the better known that we must pursue the unknown, and better known are the things which are larger and plainer to our senses, it is clear that it is right to speak of these things in the way indicated: for then in dealing with the less known things we shall be making these better known things our standard, and shall ask how far and in what manner comparison is possible in each case. And when we have taken the parts,^[28] we must next take the differences which they exhibit,^[29] for thus will their essential nature become plain, and at the same time the general differences between one kind of plant and another.

Now the nature of the most important parts has been indicated already, that is, such parts as the root, the stem, and the rest: their functions and the reasons for which each of them exists will be set forth presently. For we must endeavour to state of what these, as well as the rest, are composed, starting from their elementary constituents.

First come moisture and warmth: for every plant, like every animal, has a certain amount of moisture and warmth which essentially belong to it; and, if these fall short, age and decay, while, if they fail altogether, death and withering ensue. Now in most^[30] plants the moisture has no special name, but in some it has such a name, as has been said^[31]: and this also holds good of animals: for it is only the moisture of those which have blood which has received a name; wherefore we distinguish animals by the presence or absence of blood, calling some 'animals with blood,' others 'bloodless.' Moisture then is one essential 'part,' and so is warmth, which is closely connected with it.

There are also other internal characters, which in themselves have no special name, but, because of their resemblance, have names analogous to those of the parts of animals. Thus plants have what corresponds to muscle; and this quasi-muscle is continuous, fissile, long: moreover no other growth starts from it either branching from the side^[32] or in continuation of it. Again^[33] plants have veins: these in other respects resemble the 'muscle,'^[34] but they are longer and thicker, and have side-growths and contain moisture. Then there are wood and flesh: for some plants have flesh, some wood. Wood is fissile,^[35] while flesh can be broken up in any direction, like earth and things made of earth: it is intermediate between fibre and veins, its nature being clearly seen especially in the outer covering^[36] of seed-vessels. Bark and core are properly so called,^[37] yet they too must be defined. Bark then is the outside, and is separable from the substance which it covers. Core is that which forms the middle of the wood, being third^[38] in order from the bark, and corresponding to the marrow in bones. Some call this part the 'heart,' others call it 'heart-wood'; some again call only the inner part of the core itself the 'heart,' while others distinguish this as the 'marrow.'

Here then we have a fairly complete list of the 'parts,' and those last named are composed of the first 'parts'; wood is made of fibre and sap, and in some cases of flesh also; for the flesh hardens and turns to wood, for instance in palms ferula and in other plants in which a turning to wood takes place, as in the roots of radishes. Core is made of moisture and flesh: bark in some cases of all three constituents, as in the oak black poplar and pear; while the bark of the vine is made of sap and fibre, and that of the cork-oak^[39] of flesh and sap. Moreover out of these constituents are made the most important parts,^[40] those which I mentioned first, and which may be called 'members': however not all of them are made of the same constituents, nor in the same proportion, but the constituents are combined in various ways.

Having now, we may say, taken all the parts, we must endeavour to give the differences between them and the essential characters of trees and plants taken as wholes.

 

1. i.e. 'inequality' might include 'unlikeness.'
2. cf. C.P. 5. 1. 9.
3. cf. 1. 6. 11. T. extends the term καρπός so as to include any succulent edible part of the plant.
4. T. does not consider that καρπός was necessarily anteceded by a flower.
5. Plin. 16. 122.
6. i.e. ternate.
7. i.e. if we wished to make an anatomical division. μέλη conj. Sch. cf. 1. 2. 7; μέρη Ald.
8. i.e. before if begins to divide.
9. Or 'knots.'
10. ἐφ᾿ conj. W.; ὑφ᾿ P₂P₃Ald.
11. χρονιώτερα conj. Sch.; χρονιώτερον Ald.H.
12. ἀναλογίᾳ conj. Sch.; ἀναλογία UAld.H.
13. There is no exact English equivalent for δμοιομερές which denotes a whole composed of parts, each of which is, as it were, a miniature of the whole. cf. Arist. H.A. 1. 1.
14. i.e. any part taken of flesh or bone may be called 'flesh' or 'bone.'
15. e.g. bark; cf. 1. 2. 1.
16. e.g. fruit.
17. i.e. the 'compound' parts.
18. ξύλον μήτρα conj. W. from G. μήτρα ξύλον MSS.; ξύλον, ὅσα conj. W.; ξύλα, ἢ ὅσα Ald.H.
19. οὐσία conj. Sch. (but he retracted it); συνουσία MSS. (?) Ald.
20. This definition is quoted by Hesych. s.v. μίσχος.
21. ? om. ἕλιξ, which is mentioned below.
22. τὸ συγκείμενον σπέρμα, lit. 'the compound seed,' i.e. as many seeds as are contained in one περικάρπιον.
23. cf. 7.1.2 and 3.
24. A Pythagorean philosopher of Sybaris.
25. Lit. 'muscles and veins.'
26. i.e. the analogy with animals is probably imperfect, but is useful so far as it goes.
27. 1. 1. 10.
28. e.g. the root, as such.
29. e.g. the different forms which roots assume.
30. πλείστοις conj. Mold.; πρώτοις Ald.H.
31. 1. 1. 3.
32. ἀπαράβλαστον conj. R.Const.; ἀπαράβλητον UMVAld.
33. ἔτι δὲ conj. W.; ἔχον Ald.
34. Fibre.
35. i.e. can be split in one direction.
36. e.g. an unripe walnut.
37. i.e. not by analogy with animals, like 'muscle,' 'veins,' 'flesh.'
38. Reckoning inclusively.
39. φελλοῦ conj. H.; φύλλον UVP₂P₃Ald.; φυλλοῦ M.
40. i.e. root, stem, branch, twig: cf. 1. 1. 9.

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