Enquiry into Plants/Volume 1/Chapter 62

by Theophrastus

Of the wood of silver-fir and fir.

Silver-fir and fir are the most useful trees and in the greatest variety of ways, and their^[1] timber is the fairest and largest. Yet they differ from one another in many respects; the fir is fleshier and has few fibres, while the silver-fir has many fibres and is not fleshy, so that in respect of each component it is the reverse of the other, having stout fibres^[2] but soft flesh of open texture. Wherefore the timber of the one is heavy, of the other light, the one^[3] being resinous, the other without resin; wherefore also it is whiter. Moreover the fir has more branches, but those of the silver-fir are much tougher, or rather they are tougher than those of any other tree;^[4] the branches of both however are of close texture, horny,^[5] and in colour brown and like resin-glutted wood. ^[6]When the branches of either tree are cut, sap streams from them for a considerable time, but especially from those of the silver-fir. Moreover the wood of the silver-fir has many layers, like an onion:^[7] there is always another beneath that which is visible, and the wood is composed of such layers throughout. Wherefore, when men are shaving this wood to make oars,^[8] they endeavour to take off the several coats one by one evenly: for, if they do this, they get a strong spar, while if they do the work irregularly and do not strip^[9] off the coats evenly, they get a weak one; for the process in this case is hacking instead of stripping. The silver-fir also gives timber of the greatest lengths and of the straightest growth; wherefore yard-arms^[10] and masts are made from it. Also the vessels^[11] and fibre are more clearly^[12] seen in it than in any other tree. At first^[13] it grows in height only, until it has reached^[14] the sunshine; and so far there is no branch nor sidegrowth nor density of habit; but after that the tree proceeds to increase in bulk^[15] and density of habit, as^[16] the outgrowing branches and sidegrowths develop.

These are the characteristics peculiar to the silver-fir. Others it shares with the fir and the other trees of this class. ^[17]For instance, sometimes a tree is 'four-cleft,' sometimes 'two-cleft'; it is called 'four-cleft' when on either side of the heart-wood there are two distinct and diverse lines of fissure: in that case the blows of the axe follow these lines in cases where the hewing stopped short on either side of the heart-wood.^[18] For the nature of the lines of fissure compels the hewing to take this course. Silver-firs or firs thus formed are said to be 'four-cleft.' And these are also the fairest trees for carpentry, their wood being the closest and possessing the aigis.^[19] Those which are 'two-cleft' have one single line of fissure on either side of the heart-wood, and the lines of fissure do not correspond to each other, so that the hewing also is performed by cuts which follow the two lines of fissure, so as to reach the two sides of the heart-wood at different angles. Now such wood, they say, is the softest, but the worst for carpentry, as it warps most easily. Those trees which have only a single^[20] continuous line of fissure are said to be 'one-cleft,' though here too the cutting is done from either side of the heart-wood: and such wood has, they say, an open^[21] texture, and yet^[22] it is not at all apt to warp.

^[23]There are also differences in the bark, by observation of which they can tell at once what the timber of the tree is like as it stands.^[24] For if the timber has straight and not crooked lines of fissure, the bark also is smooth and regular, while if the timber has the opposite character, the bark is rough and twisted; and so too is it with other points. However few trees are 'four-cleft,' and most of those which are not are 'one-cleft.' All wood, as was said before, which grows in a position facing north, is bigger, more erect, of straighter grain, tougher, and in general fairer and more abundant. Moreover of an individual tree the wood on the northward side is closer and more vigorous. But if a tree stands sideways to the north^[25] with a draught round it, the north wind by degrees twists and contorts^[26] it, so that its core becomes twisted instead of running straight. The timber of such a tree while still in one piece is strong, but, when cut, it is weak, because the grain slants across the several pieces. Carpenters call such wood 'short lengths,' because they thus cut it up for use. Again in general wood which comes from a moist, sheltered, shady or confined position is inferior both for carpentry and for fuel. Such are the differences, generally^[27] speaking, between trees of the same kind as they are affected by situation.

1. ταῦτα cong. Sch. from G; αὐτὰ Ald. H.
2. cf. 3. 9. 7; Plin. 16. 184.
3. τὸ μὲν γὰρ ἐνδ. conj. St. from G; ἐνδ. γὰρ Ald.
4. cf. 3. 9. 7.
5. cf. 3. 9. 7, μόνον οὐ διαφανεῖς, whence it appears that the epithet refers to colour.
6. Plin. 16. 195.
7. i.e. the annual rings. cf. 1. 5. 2; 5. 5. 3.
8. cf. Hom. Od. 12. 172.
9. κατασπῶσιν conj. W; κατὰ πᾶσιν UMV; κατὰ πάντα Ald.
10. cf. Plin. l.c.
11. cf. 1. 2. 1.
12. ἐμφανέστατας conj. W.; εὐγενεστάτας Ald.
13. δὲ conj. Sch.; καὶ U Ald. H.
14. ἄχρι … ἐφίκηται conj. Sch.; ἄχρι οὗ δὴ κἀφίκηται U; ἄχριs οὐκ ἀφίκηται MV; ἄχριs οὗ ἀχίκηται Ald. H.
15. cf. 4. 1. 4.
16. Lit. 'this being the effect of the outgrowth.' πάχος· οὕτως Ald.; πάχος⸒ ὅταν conj. W.
17. Plin. l.c.
18. The meaning of 'four-cleft' etc. seems to be this:

    

19. cf. 3. 9. 3.
20. μίαν conj. W.; μίαν δὲ P₂ Ald.
21. μανότατα conj. W.; μανότητα Ald.
22. τὰ ξύλα … τὰς conj. Sch.; τὰ ξύλα· ταῦτα δὲ πρὸς τὰς Ald. H.
23. Plin. 16. 195 and 196.
24. πεφυκὸς: cf. Xen. Cyr. 4. 3. 5.
25. ὑποπαράβορρα conj. St.; ὑπὸ παράβορρα Ald.; ὑπόβορρα ἢ παράβορρα conj. Sch.
26. παραλλάττει conj. Dalec.; παραλλάγει U; παραλήγει Ald.; παραλυγίζει conj. H. Steph.
27. γε conj. Sch.; δὲ Ald.

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