Essentials in Conducting/Chapter 5

by Karl Wilson Gehrkens

CHAPTER V

Interpretation in Conducting

(Continued)

TEMPO

EXPRESSION IN INSTRUMENTAL MUSICIn the last chapter we discussed expression and interpretation from a general standpoint, closing with certain comments upon the interpretation of vocal music. But it must be admitted at once that expression in instrumental music is a vastly more intricate matter than in the case of vocal music; and in order to get at the subject in any tangible way, it will be necessary for us, first, to analyze music into its expressional elements; second, to decide which of these elements belong exclusively to the composer and which are shared by the interpreter; and third, to examine each of these latter elements in turn from the standpoint of the conductor as interpreter.

THE ELEMENTS OF EXPRESSIONThere are eight elements upon which expression in instrumental music rests. These are:

1. Rhythm⁠	3. Harmony	5. Timbre	7. Tempo
2. Melody	4. Pitch registers⁠	6. Phrasing⁠	8. Dynamics

Of these, the composer is able to indicate exactly the first four, to convey his meaning fairly well in the fifth and sixth, but to give only a relative idea of the seventh and eighth. The interpreter is thus concerned with the first four only as it becomes necessary for him to find out from the notation what the composer intended to express. On the other hand, he is considerably concerned with the fifth and sixth factors (timbre and phrasing) and has the main responsibility in the last two (tempo and dynamics). This being the case, we shall treat tempo and dynamics first of all, as being the two primary factors of expression with which the conductor is concerned.

IMPORTANCE OF TEMPOWagner, in his famous essay on conducting, takes the rather radical ground that everything else is dependent upon the proper selection and management of tempo. He says:^[1]

The whole duty of the conductor is comprised in his ability always to indicate the right tempo. His choice of tempi will show whether he understands the piece or not … The true tempo induces correct force and expression.

In another place in the same work he treats the matter further, as follows: (p. 34)

Obviously the proper pace of a piece of music is determined by the particular character of the rendering it requires. The question therefore comes to this: Does the sustained, the cantilena, predominate, or the rhythmical movement? The conductor should lead accordingly.

It is doubtful whether many modern conductors would entirely agree with Wagner's statement that correct tempo always "induces correct force and expression." Nevertheless tempo is so important that probably no one will quarrel with us if we at least give it first place in the order in which the elements of expression are discussed.

In modern music the composer indicates the tempos of the various movements much more definitely than was true in earlier days, so it would seem as if not nearly so much responsibility rested upon the conductor; and yet there is still a wide difference of opinion among musicians about the matter, and in many cases the conductor substitutes his own judgment for that of the composer, assuming that the latter either made a mistake in indicating the tempo, or else that he had not tried the composition at the tempo preferred by the conductor, and therefore did not realize how much more effective it would be that way.

FINDING THE CORRECT TEMPOIn the main, there are five methods upon which the conductor depends for determining the correct tempo of a composition. These are:

1. The metronome indication, found at the beginning of most modern scores.
2. The tempo or mood expressions (andante, allegro, adagio, et cetera), which have been in universal use for two centuries or more, and which are found in practically all music, even when a metronome indication is also given.
3. The swing and, in vocal music, the general spirit of the text.
4. Tradition.
5. Individual judgment of tempo as depending upon and resulting from the "quality" of the music.

Of these, the fifth, viz., individual judgment is most important, and is the court of final resort in the case of the mature musician; but the amateur who has had but little experience and who is therefore without any well developed musical taste must depend largely upon his metronome, upon his knowledge of Italian tempo terms, and upon tradition. A brief discussion of these matters will accordingly be in order at this time.

THE METRONOME AS A TEMPO INDICATORThe metronome^[2] is a sort of clock with inverted pendulum, the ticks or clicks of which can be regulated as to rate of speed by means of a sliding weight. When this weight is set at the point marked 64, for example, the metronome gives sixty-four clicks per minute; when set at 84, or 112, corresponding numbers of clicks per minute result; so that in this way the composer is able to indicate precisely the rate of speed of his composition by indicating the number of beats per minute. The indication = 84 means that the sliding weight is to be set at the point marked 84, the metronome then clicking eighty-four times per minute, each of these clicks indicating a quarter-note. But if the marking is = 64, this means that sixty-four half-notes are to be performed in a minute, a tempo equal to one hundred and twenty-eight quarter-notes in the same composition. In compound measures such as 6–8, 9–8, et cetera, the tempo indication shows the number of eighth-notes per minute if the composition is in slow tempo; but in moderate and rapid tempos the direction is usually given by taking the dotted-quarter-note as the beat unit, thus: = 84. It is of course obvious that in this case the composer is thinking of each measure as having only two or three beats instead of six or nine.

THE ITALIAN TEMPO TERMSMany instrumental compositions (particularly the older ones) are not provided by the composer with definite tempo directions; and in this case the Italian tempo terms usually give at least a clue to what the composer has in mind. These terms do not of course give us the precise tempo, but by indicating the mood of a composition they at least help one to determine the rate of speed (adagio—at ease; allegro—cheerful; largo—large, broad; andante—going; et cetera). A comprehensive knowledge of these terms from the twofold standpoint of definition and derivation is indispensable to the conductor. The most common of them are therefore defined at this point. They are given in groups in order that the student may note how much the various terms overlap in meaning.

The Very Slowest Tempo
larghissimo (superlative of largo)
adagissimo(superlative of adagio)
lentissimo (superlative of lento)

A Very Slow Tempo
largo (from Latin largus, meaning broad, large)
adagio (at ease)
lento (slow)

A Slow Tempo
larghetto (diminutive of largo)
adagietto (diminutive of adagio)

A Moderately Slow Tempo
andante (going or walking)
andantino (diminutive of andante and therefore meaning literally "going less," but because of a misconception of meaning now often understood as meaning slightly faster than andante)

A Moderate Tempo
moderato

A Moderately Rapid Tempo
allegro (cheerful)
allegretto (diminutive of allegro; a little slower than allegro)

A Very Rapid Tempo
con moto (with motion)
vivo (lively)
vivace (vivacious)
presto (quick)
presto assai (very quick)

The Most Rapid Tempo Possible
prestissimo (superlative of presto)
vivacissimo (superlative of vivace)
allegrissimo (superlative of allegro)
prestissimo possibile (hypersuperlative of presto)

The expressions given above are frequently used in combination with one another, and with certain auxiliary terms, but to attempt to define these combinations in this book would be altogether impracticable. The conductor should however understand the significance of the following qualifying expressions:

non tanto (not too much)

non troppo (not too much)

ma non tanto (but not too much)

ma non troppo (but not too much)

These expressions are used by the composer as a warning to the performer not to overdo any indicated effect. Thus, largo, ma non troppo means that the composition is to be taken slowly, but not too slowly. Presto (ma) non troppo, on the other hand, indicates a rapid tempo, but not too rapid. For a fuller discussion of these matters, see the author's text book on terminology.^[3]

The third means of finding tempo has already been discussed, (see p. 45) and the fifth needs no further explanation; but a word should perhaps be said to the amateur about the matter of tradition. The young conductor must not fail to take into consideration the fact that there has grown up, in connection with many of the classics, a well defined idea of the tempos most appropriate to their rendition, and that any pronounced departure from this traditional tempo is apt to result in unfavorable criticism. Tradition is of course apt to make us hide-bound in all sorts of ways, and yet in many respects it is a very good thing, and before our conductor attempts to direct standard works it will be well for him to hear them rendered by some of the better organizations, so that he may ascertain what the traditional tempo is. In this way he may at least avoid the accusation of ignorance which might otherwise be made. This latter point will remind the reader of the advice already so frequently given viz., "study music and listen to music a long time before you attempt very much conducting."

VARIATION IN TEMPO

Our treatment of tempo thus far has taken cognizance of only the generalized tempo of the movement, and we have not discussed at all the much more difficult matter of variation in tempo. The more evident changes of this sort are indicated by the composer through such expressions as ritardando, accelerando, et cetera; and it may be well to give at this point a list of the commoner of these terms together with their meanings. Obviously, such indications are of two general types dealing respectively with increasing and decreasing speed, and we shall accordingly give the definitions in two classes:

Terms Indicating a More Rapid Tempo

1. A gradual acceleration
   accelerando
   affrettando
   stringendo
   poco a poco animato
2. A definitely faster tempo at once
   più allegro
   più presto
   più animato
   più mosso
   più tosto
   più stretto
   un poco animato

Terms Indicating a Slower Tempo

1. A gradual retard
   ritardando
   rallentando
   slentando
2. A definitely slower tempo at once
   più lento
   meno mosso
   ritenuto
3. A slower tempo combined with an increase in power

   largando
   allargando$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$ (literally, "becoming broad")

4. A slower tempo combined with a decrease in power

   morendo
   perdendo
   perdendosi
   calando
   smorzando$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \\\ \\\ \\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$ (Usually translated, "gradually dying away")

(After any of the terms in the above list, a return to the normal tempo is indicated by such expressions as a tempo, tempo primo, et cetera.)

TEMPO NUANCES

But in addition to the variations in tempo more or less definitely indicated by the composer there are (particularly in modern music) innumerable tempo fluctuations of a much subtler nature; and since these are now recognized as a part of really artistic choral and orchestral interpretation, (as they have long formed an indispensable element in expressive piano performance) a brief discussion of their nature will be included before closing this chapter.

In some cases a variable tempo is asked for by the composer by means of one of the following expressions:

tempo rubato (literally, "robbed time")

ad libitum (at pleasure)

a piacere (at pleasure)

a capriccio (at the caprice)

agitato (agitated)

(The term tempo giusto—in exact tempo—is the opposite of the above expressions, and is used to indicate that the music is to be performed in steady tempo.)

In the majority of cases, however, the composer gives no indication whatsoever, and the whole responsibility therefore rests upon the performer or conductor. It is because of this latter fact that the amateur must study these matters indefatigably. The advent of a more elastic rhythm and tempo has undoubtedly made all musical performance infinitely more pleasurable to the listener than it formerly was; but unfortunately (especially since the advent of Chopin's music) there has been a great deal of misunderstanding as to the use and meaning of this valuable new expressional element.

Tempo rubato may be compared to speaking certain words more slowly or more rapidly in order that the essential meaning of the entire sentence may be more strongly impressed upon the listener. It must not however break up the continuity of the tempo; as one writer has said "we must bend the tempo, but not break it." Another well-known author, in treating the same point, states that^[4]

Freedom in tempo does not mean unsteadiness.… We must have in music the sense of equilibrium, of stability. A careless, spasmodic hurrying and retarding leads only to flabbiness and inconsequence.

The most common kind of rubato is probably that in which the first part of the phrase (up to the climax) is accelerated, the climacteric tone lingered upon slightly, then the remainder of the phrase rendered a tempo or possibly slightly ritardando. But there are many phrases that demand a totally different sort of treatment; e.g., a ritardando in the first part instead of an accelerando. Which is the appropriate way of delivering any particular phrase must be determined in every case by musical feeling.

The thing that the beginner is apt to forget at the period when his musical feeling though sincere is yet characterized by lack of refinement, is that these nuances must always be subtle, and that the listener ought not to have fluctuations in tempo thrust in his face at every turn. Indeed we may say that he should hardly know that they are present, unless he is making a definite attempt to analyze the performance. The familiar story of Chopin's breathing toward a candle flame and making it flicker slightly, with the remark, "That is my rubato," then blowing it violently out and saying "This is yours," is quite to the point in this connection.

It is of course understood that rubato is to be employed almost exclusively in moderate or slow tempos, having little or no place in rapid, strongly rhythmic music. It should also be remarked that the more severe the form of the music,—the more architectonic it is—the less variation in tempo should there be in its rendition, for in this type of music the expression is primarily intellectual. Such instrumental works (of which certain compositions of Bach and Mozart are typical) must not be played sentimentally, as a modern English writer has remarked, and yet they must be played with sentiment. The remarks of this same author may well be quoted in closing this discussion:^[5]

Rubato is necessary in emotional music and is an excellent means of picturing longing, persuading, dreaming, et cetera. That is why its use is so characteristic in performing the works of the romantic school and why it must be used with such caution in the classics. The classic must be clear as daylight—the structure must be evident even on the surface; but the romantic composition needs often to be played in a veiled manner in order to produce atmosphere. In such a case the rhythm is veiled as it were, draped in gauze, but the rhythmic design is there under the veil just the same. To express calmness, decision, et cetera, avoid rubato.

It must now be evident to the reader that this whole matter of musical nuance is too subtle to be treated adequately in a book of this character, and it becomes necessary for us once more to advise the amateur to study music, both vocal and instrumental, in order that his latent musical feeling may be developed into a ripe and adequate musical taste.

TEMPO RECORDED IN MUSCLESIn concluding the chapter let us emphasize the fact that the establishing of a tempo is a matter of muscle even more than of mind, and that before beginning to beat time the conductor should have the tempo recorded in his muscular memory. Before rising to conduct a composition then let him feel its tempo in the muscles of the arm and hand wielding the baton; for if not thus felt, the work will rarely be begun with a clearly defined rate of speed. This consideration receives added weight when it is recalled that if the conductor does not set the tempo, the chorus accompanist or first violinist will, and they, not having studied the music from this standpoint, will rarely succeed in hitting upon the correct rate of movement.

1. Wagner, On Conducting, translated by Dannreuther, p. 20.
2. The metronome is supposed to have been invented, or at least perfected, by a Bavarian named Maelzel, about 1815, and for many years the Maelzel metronome was the only one in existence. Hence the letters M.M., still found in many scores, in connection with tempo indications.
3. Gehrkens, Music Notation and Terminology. The A. S. Barnes Co., New York.
4. Dickinson, The Education of a Music Lover, p. 21.
5. Matthay, Musical Interpretation, p. 88.