History of the Literature of the Scandinavian North/Part 3/Chapter 2
CHAPTER II.
PERIOD OF THE REFORMATION (1520-1640).
THE introduction of the Reformation proceeded far more slowly in Sweden than in Denmark. The first impulse was given by Olaus Petri, who for three years had been a pupil of Luther and Melanchthon, and who after his return in 1519, supported by his brother Laurentius Petri and by Laurentius Andreæ, began the work of reformation. The latter, who held a prominent office in the church, made the king, Gustav Vasa, acquainted with the new doctrine, and he at once was deeply affected by it, but he also appreciated what great advantages it afforded for the firm establishment of the royal power. The people did not, however, yet feel the need of any reformation of the church, and when the new order of things was adopted at the riksdag at Vesterås in 1527, it met with considerable opposition not only from the Catholic clergy, but also from the lower strata of the population, while the upper classes of society assumed a somewhat indifferent attitude to it. When, in the reign of king Johan (1568-92), great efforts were made to restore the old faith, many deserted the Lutheran doctrine. The latter, nevertheless, gradually increased in strength, and when after the death of Johan it was expected that his son and successor, the Polish king Sigismund, was going to crush out Protestantism, the Swedish people made haste to assemble in Upsala in 1593 and solemnly adopt the Augsburg confession before the new king had landed in Sweden. Sigismund, whether he liked it or not, was compelled to accept the decision of the national assembly, and the Lutheran religion was henceforth firmly established in Sweden.
The intellectual life that had been awakened by the struggle between the old and the new faith was followed by a literary activity that soon partly abandoned the religious field in which the movement had been inaugurated, and took up other subjects of more or less general interest. Printing had been introduced in Sweden in the latter half of the fifteenth century, and the first book printed in this country was a Latin work about Katarina, a daughter of St. Bergitta (Vita sive legenda cum miraculis Catharinæ), which was published in 1474. But a thoroughly equipped printing press was not established in Stockholm before the year 1491, and in 1495 the first book printed in Swedish appeared, the translation of a Latin work on the temptations of the devil. In 1520 there were already three printing offices, and thus the reformers were in no want of means for spreading among the people attacks on the Catholic church.
The bulk of the literature produced during the period of reformation consisted, as a matter of course, in theological works. They were partly dogmatical, or books for edification, and partly polemical, and as it was important to awaken a popular interest in this kind of reading, they were for the most part written in Swedish, while the learned literature consisted chiefly in disputations and was written in Latin.
The work of the three reformers mentioned above was of great importance, for especially by their translations of the Bible they laid a solid foundation for the development of a written language. This is particularly true of Laurentius Petri (1499-1573), who superintended the translation of the whole Bible and did the most of the work himself. This version was published in Upsala in 1540-41, while the New Testament had already appeared in a Swedish translation by Lawrentius Andreæ (1482-1552) in 1526. Laurentius Petri was also the author of a series of theological works, but in this field he was greatly surpassed by his brother Olaus Petri (1497-1552). The "Liten Postilla" written by the latter became widely circulated, and by many of his literary productions he laid the foundation of the form of worship still in use in the Swedish church.[1]
By the side of the theological literature history occupied a prominent position during this period. Though the historians were wanting in scientific skill, still it was already at that time evident that the Swedes in an eminent degree deserved to be called a historical nation, which keenly appreciates the great deeds of the fathers, and which is upon the whole thoroughly in sympathy with the recollections of the past. This fact has contributed much toward giving a peculiar stamp to Swedish literature. The unpleasant relations between Sweden and Denmark during the whole period of the union, and the rupture which afterward took place, aided materially in arousing a national sentiment among the Swedes, which, especially during the reign of the great kings of the seventeenth century, when Sweden occupied a high position among the European nations, was greatly developed and asserted itself in a most striking manner in the national literature.
The first attempt at historical criticism was made by Olaus Petri, the reformer mentioned above, who, like his brother Laurentius, wrote a Swedish chronicle. This criticism was mainly directed against the tendency which had already manifested itself in the way of exaggerating the antiquity of Sweden and its ancient importance, and which is rather to be ascribed to an unbridled fancy and want of critical methods than to any wilful perversion of historical truth. In a later period we shall find prominent representatives of this tendency, which owed its origin to an intense patriotism, a leading trait in the Swedish character, and which on this very account was well nigh incorrigible. The most remarkable instance of this phantastic historiography in this period was the archbishop Johannes Magnus (1488-1544), whose patriotic enthusiasm led him in his "Historia de omnibus Gothorum Sveorumque regibus" to carry the genealogy of the kings even as far back as to the deluge.[2]
Chronicles of Gustav Vasa were written by Peder Svart (died 1562), by Erik Göransson Tegel (about 1580-1636) under the superintendence and by the encouragement of King Karl IX, and by Ægidius Girs (about 1580-1639), the last of whom also wrote chronicles of Erik XIV and Johann III. King Gustavus Adolphus wrote in pure, beautiful Swedish a history of his father Karl IX, and the chancellor Axel Oxenstjerna (1583-1654) began a history of Gustavus Adolphus, which did not, however, extend beyond the introduction.[3]
The versatile and fertile writer, Messenius, deserves a special mention. Johan Messenius, whose chief department was history, was the son of a miller near Vadstena, and was born in 1579. When sixteen years old he was carried off by the Jesuits, who wished to make a Catholic apostle of him, and accordingly gave him a careful education in the Jesuit college in Braunsberg. After a number of years he returned to Sweden with the title of "Poeta cæsareus," which he had received from the Emperor for his Latin poems, and his learning soon gained him the favor of Karl IX. He was appointed professor of jurisprudence in Upsala, where he soon became popular with his students, but being haughty and quarrelsome, he spent his time in incessant wranglings with his colleagues. After a very stormy scene, when his adherents assailed the consistorium, he was for a time transferred to another position. It afterward appeared that he was engaged in a treasonable conspiracy, and was working for the restoration of Catholicism. He was sentenced to death, but in consideration of his great learning the sentence was commuted to imprisonment for life. Here with his wife, who shared her husband's fate, he was treated with great severity. He was allowed to have books and writing materials, and during the twenty years he spent in prison, before death claimed him in 1637, he developed a startling literary activity.
His chief work is the "Scondia Illustrata," a history of Sweden, written partly in verse and partly in prose. The work was intended to consist of twenty parts, of which, however, the first to the thirteenth and the fifteenth made their appearance. Messenius believed that he was chosen by Providence to do this work, and that he partly for this purpose had to suffer his severe imprisonment. He proceeded with great thoroughness, and though the subject, particularly that part of it which relates to ancient Sweden, is treated in a very uncritical manner, still it is the first important step in this direction, and is even at present a valuable source of Swedish history of the sixteenth century. He entertained the hope that as a reward for his great work he would regain his freedom, but he died before the petition which he sent in had been considered. Besides the "Scondia Illustrata," Messenius produced several other historical works, among which are a bishop's chronicle, and the chronicle of St. Birgitta. They are written in Swedish, and a portion of them is in rhymed verses. Further on we shall have occasion to mention another side of his literary industry.[4]
With the exception mentioned in the preceding chapter, the writing of dramas began in Sweden in the sixteenth century. For this kind of literature there was a peculiar element at hand, namely the "dance-plays," which had been very popular with the people from time out of mind, and which had been far more widely used in Sweden than in Denmark and Norway. On the basis of these plays Sweden might have developed a peculiar dramatic literature for the stage, but other conditions were not favorable, and so there was here, as in the rest of the North, produced instead the school-comedy. Its original purpose was to train the students of the colleges and of the university in the classical languages, and at the same time to promote morality by introducing examples of good conduct. Later Swedish was substituted for the ancient languages, while the original pedagogical tendency was preserved. The first author of a school-comedy was Olaus Petri, who wrote a "Tobiae comedia," and like all the subsequent plays of this kind it was produced in rhymed verses. For some time these dramas took their plots exclusively from the Bible, adhering with servile accuracy to the scriptural text without seeking to secure any dramatic development. To this sweeping statement we must make a single exception, the "Holofernis och Judiths commaedia," which in excellence surpasses all the others.
In the beginning of the seventeenth century these dramatized biblical tales were succeeded by secular plays, which took their plots from the old classical literature, but which in other respects ranked no higher than their predecessors. The best one among them is the oldest one entitled, "En lustigh comoedia vidh nampn Tisbe" (a merry comedy by the name Thisbe), written by Magnus Olai Asteropherus (died 1647), which was played for the first time in 1610. To the better ones of this class belongs also "Troijenborgh," by Nicolaus Holgeri Catonius, which treats of the fate of Troy, and is written with a comparatively high degree of dramatic skill. The "Judas Redivivus," by Jacobus Petri Rondeletius, is worthy of notice on account of its scenes from popular life, and for other pictures of the times to which it belongs.
Messenius now founded an entirely new school, in which be soon found imitators. He selected subjects from Swedish history as the basis of his dramas. He intended to write fifty comedies and tragedies on the history of Sweden. In these he proposed to represent his country's history from the introduction of Christianity to the Reformation, just as had been done in reference to the history of England by his great contemporary, Shakespeare. But he completed only six of these dramas: "Disa," "Svanhuita," "Signill," "Blancka- Märeta," "Christmannacomoedia," and "Gustaf I's comoedia," the last two in prison. They were received with great favor by his contemporaries, though they by no means show any great dramatic power. The most interesting part of these plays, which simply tell history in the form of dialogue, are the songs and scenes from popular life, the songs being written in imitation of the popular ballad. Among the successors of Messenius, Andreas Prytz (1590-1655) is the most remarkable. In his national dramas, "Olof Skott-Konung" and "En lustigh comoedia om Kong Gustaf then första," we find a certain satirical element, and they are also interesting on account of the pictures they contain of popular life.[5]
Besides these secular dramas there were also comedies with allegorical characters, corresponding to the mediæval "moralities." In the course of the seventeenth century the school comedies disappeared more and more, as did also the other similar compositions, especially when Queen Christina introduced at the court the "ballads" (a medley of opera and ballet), which were presented with a wealth of scenery and according to French taste. The so-called "Processions" and "Värdskap," that is, a kind of processions and masquerades with verses and dialogues interspersed, were also gradually taking the place of the drama proper.
Upon the whole the poetical literature of the period of the Reformation was not of much account. As a matter of course the religious element played the principal part, for it was above all necessary to get the new doctrine firmly established, to which end the school-comedies were especially expected to contribute. Most of the other poetry consisted in spiritual songs, the majority of which were translated from German. Both the brothers Petri composed a number of religious poems, and Olaus wrote one about "Christi pina och uppstandelse" (The passion and resurrection of Christ). The only secular productions in the line of poetry were a few rhymed chronicles and historical poems without any artistic value whatever.
Purely scientific study, which in the fifteenth century eked out a poor existence, was revived again, when the religious fermentation had somewhat subsided. Sweden's "learned period" began and developed essentially in the same manner as in Denmark, that is, by investigating and accumulating a mass of details without the power of systematizing them. The intellectual insipidity and pedantry with which the work was undertaken prevented the creation of a genuine scientific taste, so that Sweden in this field must be said to have played a rather inferior part. At the same time the pursuit of learning resulted in a certain amount of good, inasmuch as it laid the foundation of the extensive knowledge of the polyhistors, which characterized the following period. Science had, however, no influence on the literature of this period, and the number of learned writers was very small. Johan Bure or Bureus (1568-1652) is a solitary exception. His studies embraced all sciences and in the most of them he has written works which give evidence of vast learning, though they are more or less tainted by the superstition and mysticism of the age. His most meritorious efforts had for their object the introduction of the study of northern antiquities, especially of the runes. His works in this direction, as well as his establishment of a rational system of the laws of the national vernacular, have now but little value, but in their day they were of great importance. It was he, moreover, who first discovered and published the above-mentioned excellent work, "Um styrilsi Kununga ok Höfdinga." It can scarcely be called an illusion to maintain that he was the main cause of the national and humane character of the succeeding age, for both the men who in the seventeenth century raised Sweden to her climax, Gustavus Adolphus and Stjernjhelm, had been his pupils, and both of them admit that they had been greatly influenced by his teachings.[6]
- ↑ U. v. Troil: Skrifter och Handlingar til upplysning i Sv. Kyrko- och Reformations-Hist. Upsala, 1790.
- ↑ Olai Petri Chronica in Scriptores rer. Svecicarum medii ævi, I. Johannes Magni, Historia de omnibus Gothorum Sveorumque regibus, Romae, 1554.
- ↑ P. Svart (Niger): Gustav. I, Chr. edited by Klemming, 1870. Gustav I Historia, Stockholm, 1662. Girs: Konung Gustaffs och Konung Erichs den XIV chrönikor, Stockholm, 1670. Konung Johans III chrönika, Stockholm, 1745.
- ↑ Joh. Messenius: Scondia Illustrata, I-XIV, edited by Peringskjold, Stockholm, 1700.
- ↑ G. E. Ingelius: Om medeltidens skådespel, 1861. G. Ljunggren: Svenska dramat intill slutet af sjuttonde århundredet, 1864. G. E. Klemming: Sveriges dramatiska literatur till 1863, Bibliografi, Stockholm, 1879.
- ↑ J. Bureus: Runa Känslones Lärospån, Upsala 1599. Specimen primariæ linguæ Scanzianæ, Stockholm, 1636, Monumenta Vett. Sueonum et Gothorum, s. l. et. al.