Indian Shipping/Book 1/Part 2/Chapter 2

by Radha Kumud Mukhopadhyay

CHAPTER II.

The Maurya Period.

We now reach the age of the Mauryas, which may be taken roughly to begin from the date of Alexander's Indian campaigns, about 325 B.C. In the accounts of these campaigns by Greek writers like Arrian, Curtius, and others, interesting light is sometimes thrown on the economic life of the period. Thus it may be stated with certainty that shipbuilding was in those very ancient days (so far back as 325 B.C.) a very flourishing industry giving employment to many, and the stimulus to its development must have come from the demands of both river and ocean traffic. Alexander's passage of the Indus was effected by means of boats^[1] supplied by native craftsmen. A flotilla of boats was also used in bridging the difficult river of the Hydaspes.^[2] For purposes of the famous voyage of Nearchus^[3] down the rivers and to the Persian Gulf, all available country boats were impressed for the service, and a stupendous fleet was formed, numbering, according to Arrian,^[4] about 800 vessels, according to Curtius and Diodorus about 1,000 vessels, but according to the "more reliable estimate of Ptolemy" nearly 2,000 vessels, which between them accommodated 8,000 troops, several thousand horses, and vast quantities of supplies. It was indeed an extraordinarily huge fleet, built entirely of Indian wood by the hands of Indian craftsmen. In this connection the remarks made by the two great authorities on the history of ancient Oriental commerce, namely Dr. Vincent and Dr. Robertson, are of considerable interest. Says Dr. Vincent:—

The Ayeen Akbari reckons the Panje-ab as the third province of the Mogul Empire, and mentions 40,000 vessels employed in the commerce of the Indus, It was this commerce that furnished Alexander with the means of seizing, building, hiring, or purchasing the fleet with which he fell down the stream; and when we reflect that his army consisted of 124,000 men, with the whole country at his command, and that a considerable portion of these had been left at the Hydaspes during the interval that the main body advanced to the Hyphasis and returned to the Hydaspes again, we shall have no reason to accuse Arrian of exaggeration when he asserts that the fleet consisted of 800 vessels of which 30 only were ships of war and the rest such as were usually employed in the navigation of the river. . . . Strabo mentions the proximity of Emodus, which afforded plenty of fir, pine, cedar, and other timber; and Arrian informs us that Alexander in the country of the Assaconi, and before he reached the Indus, had already built vessels which he sent down the Koppenes to Taxila. All these circumstances contribute to prove the reality of a fact highly controverted; and even though we were to extend the whole number of the fleet, comprehending tenders and boats, with some authors to 2,000, there is no improbability sufficient to excite astonishment.^[5]

Dr. Robertson also expresses the same opinion:—

That a fleet so numerous should have been collected in so short a time is apt to appear at first sight incredible. But as the Punjab country is full of navigable rivers, on which all the intercourse among the natives was carried on, it abounded with vessels ready constructed to the conqueror's hands, so that he might easily collect that number. If we could give credit to the account of the invasion of India by Semiramis, no fewer than 4,000 vessels were assembled in the Indus to oppose her fleet (Diod. Sicul., lib. ii., cap. 74). It is remarkable that when Mahmud of Ghazni invaded India, a fleet was collected on the Indus to oppose his, consisting of the same number of vessels. We learn from the Ayeen Akbari that the inhabitants of this part of India still continue to carry on all their communication with each other by water; the inhabitants of the Circar of Tatta alone (in Sindh) have not less than 40,000 vessels of various construction.^[6]

Further, we have the actual mention made by Arrian of the construction of dockyards, and the supply by the tribe called Xathroi of galleys of thirty oars and transport vessels which were all built by them.^[7]

All this clearly indicates that in the age of the Mauryas shipbuilding in India was a regular and flourishing industry of which the output was quite large. The industry was, however, in the hands of the State and was a Government monopoly; for, as Megasthenes^[8] informs us, while noticing the existence of a class of shipbuilders among the artisans, they were salaried public servants and were not permitted to work for any private person. These ships built in the royal ship-yards were, however, as Strabo^[9] informs us, let out on hire both to those who undertook voyages and to professional merchants.

A few more interesting details regarding the shipping and navigation of the period are given by Pliny^[10] in his description of Taprobane (Ceylon): "The sea between the island of Ceylon and India is full of shallows not more than six paces in depth, but in some channels so deep that no anchors can find the bottom. For this reason ships are built with prows at each end, for turning about in channels of extreme narrowness. In making sea voyages the Taprobane mariners make no observations of the stars, and indeed the Greater Bear is not visible to them, but they take birds out to sea with them which they let loose from time to time and follow the direction of their flight as they make for land."^[11] Pliny also indicates the tonnage of these ancient Indian vessels, which is said to be 3,000 amphorae, the amphora being regarded as weighing about a fortieth of a ton.^[12]

The development of this national shipping made possible and necessary the creation and organization of a Board of Admiralty^[13] as one of the six Boards which made up the War Office of Emperor Chandra Gupta (321 b.c. to 297 b.c.), "one of the greatest and most successful kings known to history." Fortunately, for information regarding this Board of Admiralty and the Naval Department we can depend not only on foreign notices like those of Megasthenes and Strabo, but also on the much more elaborate and reliable account given in the invaluable Sanskrit work of the period, the Arthaśāstra of Kautilya, which is undoubtedly one of the most important landmarks not only in the literary history of India but also in the history of Indian civilization itself. The book^[14] requires to be thoroughly studied, being a unique production of its kind in the entire Sanskrit literature, and a most valuable historical document, conveying as it does a perfectly complete picture of the extraordinarily rich and varied civilization that was developed in Maurya India over 2,000 years ago. I have, therefore, no hesitation in drawing largely upon the contents of this remarkable work of Chāṇakya and placing before the reader all such passages as tend to throw any light on the condition of the national shipping, navigation, and sea-borne trade of India in the glorious age of the Mauryas.

The Naval Department seems to have been very well organized. At its head was placed an officer who was called the नावध्यक्ष or the Superintendent of Ships.^[15] He was entrusted with the duty of dealing with all matters relating to navigation, including not only navigation of the oceans, but also inland navigation on rivers and lakes, natural or artificial.^[16] The matters relating to navigation were of course manifold. The Superintendent of Ships seems to have been something like a modern Port Commissioner, and his first duty was to see that all the dues of his port were paid, and not one evaded.

The kind and degree of the maritime activity of the period will be evident from the various kinds of port-taxes that were levied. Thus villages on sea-shores or on the banks of rivers and lakes had to pay regularly a fixed amount of tax.^[17] Fishermen had to yield one-sixth of their haul as fees for fishing license.^[18] Merchants also had to pay the customary tax levied in port towns.^[19] Passengers arriving on board the State or the king's ship had to pay the fixed and requisite amount of sailing fees.^[20] State boats were also let out to those who wanted to use them for pearl-fishery or for fishing for conch shells, and they had to pay the required amount of hire^[21]; but they were also free to use their own boats for the purpose.^[22] Besides these taxes payable to the Port Commissioner, there were the various sorts of ferry fees, which are also very interesting and equally indicative of a brisk trade and a throbbing commercial life. A man with a minor quadruped carrying some load had to pay a ferry fee of one masha.^[23] A load carried on the head, a load carried on the shoulders, a cow, and a horse had each to pay two mashas.^[24] Four mashas were demanded for each camel or buffalo that was transported across the river.^[25] Five mashas were levied for a small cart, six mashas for a cart of medium size that was drawn by bulls, and seven mashas for a big cart.^[26] Four mashas had to be paid for a load of merchandise whether for sale or not.^[27] Again, for big rivers involving greater risks, double the ferry fees above mentioned were charged.^[28] Thus conveyances and beasts of burden as well as loads of merchandise were subject to ferry fees.

But besides seeing to the realization and collection of all proper taxes and dues, the Superintendent of Ships was also entrusted with the duty of enforcing many humane harbour regulations. Thus whenever any weather-beaten, tempest-tossed ship arrived at his port, his first duty was to lend her the protecting hand of a father.^[29] He was also empowered to exempt from toll any ship laden with merchandise that was damaged and spoiled by water, or to charge only half the due toll, and then allow it to sail when the proper time for setting sail approached.^[30] Again, whenever a ship laden with merchandise foundered owing to want of hands or on account of ill-repair, it was the duty of the Superintendent of Ships to make good the loss of merchandise in part or full, as the case might be, because presumably the loss was due not to any fault of the merchants but to defects in the State vessel, and therefore must be made good from State funds.^[31]

But besides relieving ships in distress the Superintendent had to adopt many preventive measures to ensure safety. Thus during the period from the 7th day of Ashadha till the month of Kartika, i.e. when rivers are swollen owing to rains, the crossing of rivers by State or licensed ferries was strictly enforced.^[32] Again, in those large rivers which cannot be forded during either the winter or summer seasons the Superintendent of Ships had to see that large and perfectly safe vessels were launched, manned with all necessary officers and hands, viz. a captain, a steersman, and a number of servants who would hold the oars and the ropes and bale out water.^[33] Small boats were launched only in small rivers that overflowed during the rainy seasons.^[34]

To ensure safety there were also in force many strict regulations regarding the fording or crossing of rivers. Fording or crossing of rivers without permission was prohibited in order to ensure that no traitor or enemy could escape.^[35] The time and even the place for fording and crossing rivers were definitely fixed, so that any person fording and crossing outside the proper place and in unusual times was punished with first amercement;^[36] and the man who forded or crossed a river at the usual place and time but without permission had to pay a fine of 26 3/4 panas.^[37] Exceptions to this stringent rule were, however, allowed in the interests of trade and public good. Thus the following^[38] were freely allowed to cross rivers at any time and place:—

(1) Fishermen, whose business would be seriously hampered by the above regulations.

(2) Carriers of firewood, grass, flowers and fruits; gardeners and vegetable dealers who had to go far and wide to find the things they dealt in.

(3) Persons pursuing suspected criminals.

(4) Messengers following other messengers going in advance.

(5) Servants engaged to carry things (provisions and orders) to the army.

(6) Persons using their own ferries; and

(7) Dealers supplying villages of marshy districts with seeds, necessaries of life, commodities, and other accessory things. Again, Brahmans, ascetics, children, the aged and afflicted, royal messengers, and pregnant women had all to be provided by the Superintendent with free passes to cross rivers.^[39] There was also another regulation permitting foreign merchants who had often been visiting the country, as also those who were well known to local merchants, to land freely in port towns.^[40]

Lastly, the Superintendent of Ships was also entrusted with the duty of punishing all violations of harbour regulations, and miscreants that were dangerous to public peace. Thus to destruction were doomed the ships of pirates, the ships which were bound for the enemy's country, and the ships that violated the customs and rules in force in port towns.^[41] The Superintendent had also to arrest persons of the following descriptions^[42]: Any person who eloped with the wife or daughter of another; one who carried off the wealth of another; a suspected person; one having a perturbed appearance; one who had no baggage; one who attempted to conceal or evade the cognisance of a valuable load in his hand; one who had just put on a different garb; one who had just turned out an ascetic; one who pretended to be suffering from a disease; one who seemed to be alarmed; a person stealthily carrying valuable things; a person going on a secret mission; a person carrying weapons or explosives or holding poison in his hand; and lastly, one who came from a long distance without a pass. The Superintendent finally was to direct the confiscation of the commodities of those who were found to travel without a pass and of those also who with a heavy load forded a river at an unusual place and time.^[43]

We now have some idea of the organization of the Naval Department, the development of the national shipping, and the abounding commercial life in the India of the Mauryas. All this no doubt was due to the vast extent of the empire founded by Chandra Gupta that extended over the whole of Northern India from sea to sea, including even the provinces of the Paropanisadai, Aria, and Arachosia, beyond the modern frontiers of British India. The alliance of such a powerful emperor was courted even by the potentates of the Hellenistic world of his time. The consequence of this vast and varied realm was no doubt the constant stream of visitors, travellers, and envoys to and from India, and the resulting growth of elaborate regulations for their care and entertainment which were framed by the municipal commission under Chandra Gupta. "All foreigners were closely watched by officials, who provided suitable lodgings, escorts, and, in case of need, medical attendance."^[44] As Mr. Vincent Smith remarks, "the existence of these elaborate regulations is conclusive proof that the Maurya Empire in the 3rd century b.c. was in constant intercourse with foreign states, and that large numbers of strangers visited the capital on business."^[45] So great was the growth of foreign commerce that the mere taxes on imports formed a good and expanding source of revenue.

In the days of Asoka, whose empire embraced a much wider area than that of his grandfather, India was brought into systematic connection with the distant Hellenistic monarchies of Syria, Egypt, Cyrene, Macedonia, and Epirus,^[46] and she soon became, through the efforts of merchants, and missionaries preaching the gospel of universal brotherhood, at once the commercial and spiritual centre, the very heart, of the Old World. This was possible only through the instrumentality of an efficient national shipping and system of communications. As Mr. V. A. Smith observes: "When we remember Asoka's relations with Ceylon and even more distant powers, we may credit him with a sea-going fleet as well as an army."^[47]

In that monumental work called Bodhisattvāvadāna Kalpalatā, by the Kashmirian poet Kshemendra, of the 10th century a.d., is preserved a very interesting story regarding Indian mercantile activity in the Eastern waters, which clearly indicates that the progress of the foreign intercourse and naval activity of India during the days of the Emperor Chandra Gupta was continued also in the days of Asoka the Great. The 73rd Pallava or chapter of Kshemendra's work above referred to relates how the Emperor Asoka, seated on the throne in the city of Pataliputra, while holding his court, was one day approached by some Indian merchants who traded to the distant islands. They informed him of their losses and complete ruin brought about by the depredations of seafaring pirates called Nagas (probably the Chinese, who are worshippers of the Dragon), who destroyed all their ships and plundered their treasure. They said that if the Emperor was disposed to be indifferent to them they would no doubt be forced to take to other ways of earning their livelihood, but the imperial exchequer in that case was liable to be emptied owing to absence of sea voyages (i.e. if there was a slackening of the sea-borne trade and a consequent falling off in the export and import duties). Then the story goes on to relate how Asoka, after bestowing some thought on the seafaring Nagas, was persuaded by a Buddhist priest to issue a sort of edict (which we may call Asoka's Marine Edict) inscribed on a copper plate, which was, however, contemptuously set at naught by those for whom it was meant. It was only when Asoka became a devout Buddhist that he was able to make the Nagas respect his edict and give up all their booty, which was afterwards distributed among the merchants robbed.^[48]

We have now narrated some of the facts in the sea-borne trade of India from the earliest times recorded to the glorious epoch of the Mauryas, seeking humbly to unroll the ample pages of one of the many forgotten but brilliant chapters in the early history of our country.

 

1. V. A. Smith's Early History of India, p. 55.
2. Ibid., pp. 59, 60: "He found the fleet of galleys, boats, and rafts in readiness." Also Arrian, v. 8.
3. Ibid., p. 87.
4. Indica, ch. xix.
5. Commerce of the Ancients, vol. i., p. 12.
6. Disquisition concerning Ancient India, p. 196.
7. Anab., vi. 15, and Curtius, ix. 9.
8. Strabo, xv. 46: "But the armour-makers and shipbuilders receive wages and provisions from the kings for whom alone they work."
9. Strabo, xv. 46.
10. Pliny, vi. 22, quoted in McCrindle's Ancient India, p. 55.
11. Pliny, vi. 22. The fact of mariners using birds for ascertaining the direction in which the land lay is also alluded to in the Digha Nikaya (I. 222) of Sutta-Pitaka, the famous Pali text. Mr. Rhys Davids places the date of the Digha in the 5th century b.c. and takes this reference to be "the earliest in Indian books to ocean-going ships out of sight of land." (See J.R.A.S., April, 1899, p. 432.)
12. Pliny, vi. 22. With regard to the equivalent of the amphora and the tonnage of these ancient vessels, McCrindle says: "The amount of cargo carried by ancient ships was generally computed by the talent or the amphora, each of which weighed about a fortieth of a ton. The largest ships carried 10,000 talents or 250 tons. The talent and the amphora each represented a cubic foot of water, and as the Greek or Roman foot measured about .97 of an English foot, the talent and the amphora each weighed very nearly 57 lbs. See Torr's Ancient Ships, p, 25."
13. V. A. Smith's Early History of India, p. 124. Cf. also Strabo, xv. 52: "Next to the city magistrates there is a third governing body which directs military affairs. This also consists of six divisions with five members to each. One division is associated with the Admiral of the Fleet."
14. In using this book for my purposes I was greatly helped by the translations of Pandit R. Syāma Sāstry in the Mysore Review.
15. Arthaśāstra, bk. ii., ch. xxviii.
16. नावध्यक्षस्समुद्रसंयानवानदीमुखतरप्रचाराण् देवसरोविसरोनदीतरांश्च स्थानीयादिष्ववेक्षेत।
17. तद्वेलाकुलग्रामाः कॢप्तं दद्युः।
18. मत्सवन्धका नौकाहाटकं षड्भागं दद्युः।
19. पत्तनानुवृत्तं शुल्कभागं वणिजो दद्युः।
20. यात्रावेतनं राजनौभिः सम्पतन्तः।
21. शङ्खमुक्ताग्राहिणो नौकाहाटकं दद्युः।
22. स्वनौर्भिवातरेयुः।
23. क्षुद्रपशुर्मनुष्यश्च सभारोमाषकं दद्यात्।
24. शिरोभारः कायभारो गवाश्वं च द्वौ।
25. उष्ट्रमहिषं चतुरः।
26. पञ्चलघुयानम्। षड़्गोलिङ्गम्। सप्तशकटम्।
27. पण्यभारः पादम्। तेनभाण्डभारो व्याख्यातः।
28. द्विगुणो महानदीषु तरः।
29. मूढ़वाताहतां तां पितेवानुगृह्णीयात्।
30. उदकप्राप्तं पण्यमशुल्कमर्द्धशुल्कं वा कुर्य्यात् तथा निर्द्दिष्टाश्चैताः पण्यपत्तनयात्राकालेषु प्रेषयेत्।
31. पुरुषोपकरणहीनायामसंस्कृतायां वा नावि विपन्नायां नावध्यक्षो नष्टं विनष्टं वाभ्याभवेत्।
32. सप्ताहवृत्तमाषाढ़ीं कार्त्तिकीं चान्तरातरः।
    कार्म्मिकप्रत्ययं दद्यात् नित्यं चाह्निकमावहेत्।
33. शासकनियामकदात्ररश्मिग्राहकोत्सेचकाधिष्ठिताश्च महानावो हेमन्तग्रीष्मभार्य्यासु महानदीषु प्रयोजयेत्।
34. क्षुद्रिकासु वर्षास्राविणीषु क्षुद्रकाः।
35. वद्धतीर्थाश्चैताः कार्य्याः राजद्विष्टकारिणां तरणभयात्।
36. अकालेऽतीर्थे च चरत पूर्व्वस्साहसदण्डः।
37. काले तीर्थे च अनि-सृश्चतारिणः पादोनसप्तविंशतिपणः तरात्ययः।
38. कैवर्त्तकाष्टतृणभारपुष्पफलवाटषण्डगोपालकानामनत्यस्सम्भाव्यदूतानुपातिनां च सेनाभाण्डप्रयोगानां च; स्वतरणैः तरतां; वीजभक्तद्रव्योपस्करांश्चामूपग्रामाणां तारयताम्।
39. ब्राह्मणप्रव्रजितबालवृद्धव्याधितशासनहवगर्भिण्यो नावध्यक्ष मुद्राभिस्तरेयुः।
40. कृतप्रवेशाः पारविषयिकाः सार्थप्रमाणा वा विशेयुः।
41. हिंस्रिका निर्घातयेत्। अमित्रविषयातिगाः पण्यपत्तनचारित्रोपमातिकाश्च।
42. परस्यभार्य्यां कन्यां वित्तं वापुहरन्तं शङ्कितमाविग्न भाण्डीकृतं महाभाण्डेन मूर्ध्नि भारेणावच्छादयन्तं सद्योगृहीतलिङ्गिनं आलिङ्गिनं वा प्रव्रजितमलक्ष्यव्याधितं भयविकारिणं गूढ़सारभाण्डशासनशस्त्राग्नियोगं विषहस्तं दीर्घपथिकममुद्रं चोपाग्रहयेत्।
43. निर्गच्छताश्चामुद्रस्य भाण्डं हरेयुः।
    अतिभारेणावेलायामतीर्थे तरतश्च॥
44. V. A. Smith's Early History of India, p. 125.
45. V. A. Smith's Early History of India, p. 125.
46. Rock Edicts II. and XIII.
47. Edicts of Asoka, Introduction, p. viii.
48. राजा श्रीमानशोकोऽभूत्पुरे पाटलिपुत्रके।
    
    तं कदाचित् सभासीनं वणिजो द्वीपगामिनः।
    सर्वस्वनाशशोकार्ताः सनिश्वासा व्यजिज्ञपुः॥
    
    अस्माकं तु प्रवहणं भंक्त्वा रत्नधनं हृतम्।
    केवलं भाग्यदौर्वल्यान्नागैः सागरवासिभिः॥
    
    वयमन्यत्र जीवामस्तदुपेक्षा तु ते विभो।
    समुद्रयात्राविच्छेदात् कोशशेषविधायिनी॥
    
    इति तेषां वचः श्रुत्वा राजा संक्रान्ततद्यथः।
    समुद्रान्तर्गतान् नागान् विचिन्त्य स्तिमितोऽभवत्॥
    
    तं दृष्ट्वा निष्प्रतीकारकोपव्याकूलमानसम्।
    इन्द्रो नामाब्रवीद् भिक्षुः षडभिज्ञः स्थितोऽन्तिके॥
    
    नागानां रत्नचौराणां स्वत्प्रतापाग्निसूचकः।
    ताम्रपट्टार्पितो लेखः प्रेष्यतां पृथिवीपते॥
    
    इति भिक्षुवचः श्रुत्वा लेखं राजा विसृष्टवान्।
    क्षिप्तमेव तमम्वुधौ नागास्तीरे प्रचिक्षिपुः॥
    
    अथ राज्ञा पुनर्लेखे प्रहिते नागपुङ्गवाः।
    स्कन्धार्पिताखिलवणिग्रत्नभाराः समाययुः॥
    
    तदशेषं नरपतिर्वितीर्य्य वणिजां धनम्।
    विसृज्य नागानभवज्जिनशासनसादरः॥