Leviathan (modern)/Introduction
1651 LEVIATHAN (modernized with contemporary American spelling, usage and punctuation. Spelling and word changes from Hobbes' original are indicated with green text.)
by Thomas Hobbes
LEVIATHAN OR THE MATTER, FORM, and POWER OF A COMMONWEALTH ECCLESIASTICAL AND CIVIL
By Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury.
Printed for Andrew Crooke, at the Green Dragon in St. Paul's Churchyard, 1651.
TO MY MOST HONORED FRIEND MR. FRANCIS GODOLPHIN of GODOLPHIN
HONORED SIR.
Your most worthy brother Mr. Sidney Godolphin, when he lived, was pleased to think my studies something, and otherwise to oblige me, as you know, with real testimonies of his good opinion, great in themselves, and the greater for the worthiness of his person. For there is not any virtue that disposes a man, either to the service of god, or to the service of his country, to civil society, or private friendship, that did not manifestly appear in his conversation, not as acquired by necessity, or affected upon occasion, but inherent, and shining in a generous constitution of his nature. Therefore in honor and gratitude to him, and with devotion to yourself, I humbly dedicate unto you this my discourse of commonwealth. I know not how the world will receive it, nor how it may reflect on those that shall seem to favor it. For in a way beset with those that contend on one side for too great liberty, and on the other side for too much authority, 'tis hard to pass between the points of both unwounded. But yet, me thinks, the endeavor to advance the civil power, should not be by the civil power condemned; nor private men, by reprehending it, declare they think that power too great. Besides, I speak not of the men, but (in the abstract) of the seat of power, (like to those simple and impartial creatures in the roman capitol, that with their noise defended those within it, not because they were they, but there) offending none, I think, but those without, or such within (if there be any such) as favor them. That which perhaps may most offend, are certain texts of Holy Scripture, alleged by me to other purpose than ordinarily they use to be by others. But I have done it with due submission, and also (in order to my subject) necessarily; for they are the outworks of the enemy, from whence they impugn the civil power. If notwithstanding this, you find my labor generally decried, you may be pleased to excuse yourself, and say that I am a man that love my own opinions, and think all true I say, that I honored your brother, and honor you, and have presumed on that, to assume the title (without your knowledge) of being, as I am, Sir,
Your most humble, and most obedient servant,
Thomas Hobbes. Paris
APRIL 15/25 1651.
THE CONTENTS OF THE CHAPTERS
THE FIRST PART OF MAN
Introduction
i. Of Sense
ii. Of Imagination
iii. Of The Consequences Or Train Of Imaginations
iv. Of Speech v. Of Reason And Science
vi. Of The Interior Beginnings Of Voluntary Motions, Commonly Called The Passions; And The Speeches By Which They Are Expressed
vii. Of The Ends Or Resolutions Of Discourse
viii. Of The Virtues, Commonly Called Intellectual, And Their Contrary Defects
ix. Of The Several Subjects Of Knowledge x. Of Power, Worth, Dignity, Honor, And Worthiness
xi. Of The Difference Of Manners
xii. Of Religion
xiii. Of The Natural Condition Of Mankind As Concerning Their Felicity And Misery
xiv. Of The First And Second Natural Laws, And Of Contract
xv. Of Other Laws Of Nature
xvi. Of Persons, Authors, And Things Personated
THE SECOND PART OF COMMONWEALTH
xvii. Of The Causes, Generation, And Definition Of A Commonwealth
xviii. Of The Rights Of Sovereigns By Institution
xix. Of Several Kinds Of Commonwealth By Institution; And Of Succesion To The Sovereign Power
xx. Of Dominion Paternal, And Despotical
xxi. Of The Liberty Of Subjects
xxii. Of Systems Subject, Political, And Private
xxiii. Of The Public Ministers Of Sovereign Power
xxiv. Of The Nutrition, And Procreation Of A Commonwealth
xxv. Of Counsel
xxvi. Of Civil Laws
xxvii. Of Crimes, Excuses, And Extenuations
xxviii. Of Punishments, And Rewards
xxix. Of Those Things That Weaken, Or Tend To The Dissolution Of A Commonwealth
xxx. Of The Office Of The Sovereign Representative
xxxi. Of The Kingdom Of God By Nature
THE THIRD PART OF A CHRISTIANCOMMONWEALTH
xxxii. Of The Principles Of Christian Politics
xxxiii. Of The Number, Antiquity, Scope, Authority, And Interpreters Of The Books Of Holy Scripture.
xxxiv. Of The Signification, Of Spirit, Angel, And Inspiration In The Books Of Holy Scripture
xxxv. Of The Signification In Scripture Of The Kingdom Of God, Of Holy, Sacred, And Sacrament
xxxvi. Of The Word Of God, And Of Prophets
xxxvii. Of Miracles, And Their Use
xxxviii. Of The Signification In Scripture Of Eternal Life, Hell, Salvation, The World To Come, And Redemption
xxxix. Of The Signification In Scripture Of The Word Church xl. Of The Rights Of The Kingdom Of God, In Abraham, Moses, The High Priests, And The Kings Of Judah
xli. Of The Office Of Our Blessed Savior
xlii. Of Power Ecclesiastical
xliii. Of What Is Necessary For Man’s Reception Into The Kingdom Of Heaven
THE FOURTH PART OF THE KINGDOM OF DARKNESS
xliv. Of Spiritual Darkness From Misinterpretation Of Scripture
xlv. Of Demonology, And Other Relics Of The Religion Of The Gentiles
xlvi. Of Darkness From Vain Philosophy, And Fabulous Traditions
xlvii. Of The Benefit Proceeding From Such Darkness; And To Whom It Accrues
xlviii. A Review And Conclusion
THE INTRODUCTION
Nature (the art whereby God has made and governs the world) is by the art of man, as in many other things, so in this also imitated, that it can make an artificial animal. For seeing life is but a motion of limbs, the beginning whereof is in some principal part within; why may we not say, that all automata (engines that move themselves by springs and wheels as does a watch) have an artificial life? For what is the heart, but a spring; and the nerves, but so many strings; and the joints, but so many wheels, giving motion to the whole body, such as was intended by the artificer? Art goes yet further, imitating that rational and most excellent work of nature, man. For by art is created that great LEVIATHAN called a COMMONWEALTH, or STATE, (in Latin CIVITAS) which is but an artificial man; though of greater stature and strength than the natural, for whose protection and defense it was intended; and in which, the sovereignty is an artificial soul, as giving life and motion to the whole body; the magistrates, and other officers of judicature and execution, artificial joints; reward and punishment (by which fastened to the seat of the sovereignty, every joint and member is moved to perform his duty) are the nerves, that do the same in the body natural; the wealth and riches of all the particular members, are the strength; Salus Populi (the people’s safety) its business; counselors, by whom all things needful for it to know, are suggested unto it, are the memory; equity and laws, an artificial reason and will; concord, health; sedition, sickness; and civil war, death. Lastly, the pacts and covenants, by which the parts of this body politic were at first made, set together, and united, resemble that fiat, or the let us make man, pronounced by god in the creation.
To describe the nature of this artificial man, I will consider
First the matter thereof, and the artificer; both which is man.
Secondly, how, and by what covenants it is made; what are the rights and just power or authority of a sovereign; and what it is that preserves and dissolves it.
Thirdly, what is a Christian commonwealth.
Lastly, what is the kingdom of darkness.
Concerning the first, there is a saying much usurped of late, that wisdom is acquired, not by reading of books, but of men. Consequently whereunto, those persons, that for the most part can give no other proof of being wise, take great delight to show what they think they have read in men, by uncharitable censures of one another behind their backs. But there is another saying not of late understood, by which they might learn truly to read one another, if they would take the pains; and that is, Nosce Teipsum, read yourself: which was not meant, as it is now used, to countenance, either the barbarous state of men in power, towards their inferiors; or to encourage men of low degree, to a saucy behavior towards their betters; but to teach us, that for the similitude of the thoughts, and passions of one man, to the thoughts, and passions of another, whosoever looks into himself, and considers what he does, when he does think, opine, reason, hope, fear, etc, and upon what grounds; he shall thereby read and know, what are the thoughts, and passions of all other men, upon the like occasions. I say the similitude of passions, which are the same in all men, desire, fear, hope, etc; not the similitude or the objects of the passions, which are the things desired, feared, hoped, etc: for these the constitution individual, and particular education do so vary, and they are so easy to be kept from our knowledge, that the characters of man’s heart, blotted and confounded as they are, with dissembling, lying, counterfeiting, and erroneous doctrines, are legible only to him that searches hearts. And though by men’s actions we do discover their designee sometimes; yet to do it without comparing them with our own, and distinguishing all circumstances, by which the case may come to be altered, is to decipher without a key, and be for the most part deceived, by too much trust, or by too much diffidence; as he that reads, is himself a good or evil man.
But let one man read another by his actions never so perfectly, it serves him only with his acquaintance, which are but few. He that is to govern a whole nation, must read in himself, not this, or that particular man; but mankind; which though it be hard to do, harder than to learn any language, or science; yet, when I shall have set down my own reading orderly, and perspicuously, the pains left another, will be only to consider, if he also find not the same in himself. For this kind of doctrine, admits no other demonstration.