Madras Journal of Literature and Science/Series 1/Volume 6/Some Account of the New Colony of Western Australia
The new colony of Western Australia is situated on the western coast of New Holland, and extends from Cape Londonderry, in lat 13° 44' south, to west Cape Howe, in lat. 33° 8' south, and Hertogs Island on the western coast in long. 112° 52 to 129 east longitude, reckoning from the meridian of Greenwich.
The Swan River district (the first settled, and as yet the most important) is situated in the great plain of Quartania, bounded on the north by the Swan river, lat. 32° 1¾' long. 115° 40'; on the south by the Murray river, lat. 32° 33' long. 115° 44'; to the east by the Darling range of mountains, and to the west by the Indian Ocean. Although I have called the Swan and Murray rivers the boundaries to the north and south as being fixed points, it would be more correct to say the country adjacent to these rivers, varying from one to four or five miles, the entire area being about fifty miles by thirty. Rottenest Island which is in front of the Swan river, was discovered by Vlaming in 1696.
The country is generally of the open forest description, in undulating plains, covered with a great profusion of trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, amongst the more important families of which are first the Myrtaceæ (Jussieu), comprising the Eucalyptus, and the guava, immediately related to it; these form nearly three-fourths of the forest. In this order we find the red gum tree (Eucalyptus resinifera), the blue gum tree (E. piperita), the brown gum tree or mahogany (E. robusta), the white gum tree (E. ——), the black butted gum tree (E. ——), stringy bark tree (E. ——); also the Leptospermum, Callitris, tea tree (Melaleuca linarifolia), and others; these gum trees are found most useful for building purposes.
The second class in importance is the Leguminosæ, divisible into three principal families—the Mimosoæ, Lomentaceæ and Papilionaceæ. The Mimoseæ belong almost wholly to the genus Acaciæ, and are very generally diffused; amongst these are the black wattle tree (Acacia melanoxylon), green wattle tree (A. decurrens), and several other species. The Papilionaceæ include the Gompholobium glaucescens, and Hovea rosmarinifolia. The third class is the Proteaceæ, to which belong the Banksia, Hakea, and four species of Grevillea. 4th.— To the Diosmeæ (Brown) belong the Boronia, Correa, &c— 5th. Dilleniaceæ (Decandolle) different species of Hibbertia.—6th. The Epacridiæ (Brown) Styphelea, Epacris, three species.—7th. The Compositæ (Jussieu) Aster, Bellis, Helichrysum albicans.—8th. Thymeleæ, two species of Pimelea called ligustrina and linoides.—9th. Solaneæ, Anthocercis albicans.—10th. Goodenoviæ, several species.—11th. Orchideæ, several varieties; those which resemble the bee and butterfly are most admired—Umbelliferous plants and Filices. The more conspicuous plants and trees not belonging to any of these families, and which greatly contribute to give a character to the landscape, are a species of Zanthorea, or grass tree; a Zamia, or palm tree; three species of Casuarina, the she oak tree (C. stricta), swamp oak tree (C. paludosa), and forest oak tree (C. torulosa); the latter make good shingles, and paling or fencing. The Nutsya floribunda, or cabbage tree, a singular plant, nearly confined to this part of the coast, and named after its discoverer; when in flower it much resembles the orange tree in full bearing. The Anthistiria australis, or kangaroo grass; Mesembryanthemum officinale, or Hottentot fig; and the Anigozanthos (several species), a beautiful plant, called by some the 'kangaroo's claw,' from the resemblance of its flower to the fore-foot of that animal.
The trees and shrubs which are evergreens, are a great ornament to the country, and furnish fuel to the inhabitants, shelter to the cattle, and the leaves manure to the soil.
Of the indigenous edible plants which were found most useful to the early settler, are the sow thistle (Sonchus) Hottentot fig, the young stem and pith of the grass tree (Zanthorea), wild celery (Apium prostratum),[1] wild carrots (Daucus sylvester), a species of Orach (Atriplex Halimus); and samphire (Chrithmum): these boiled with the salt provisions were a good substitute for spinach and other fresh vegetables. Of the edible fruits none were found deserving mention.
The soil is of three different kinds—1st, sandy—2d, alluvial—3d, red loam; the first is found near the coast, and, though unpromising in appearance, trees, shrubs, and grasses grow on it abundantly, and with the assistance of manure excellent esculent vegetables are obtained from it, as the valuable gardens in the farms of Perth and Freemantle sufficiently testify. The second or alluvial is in extensive fiats, and produces admirable crops of wheat, barley, oats, &c, without any assistance from manure. The third, or red loam, which is met with on the high ground on the banks of the rivers, produces the same crops as the alluvial, but requires the assistance of manure.
There is a great deal of subterraneous moisture, which appears to be retained by a sub-soil of clay, which is to be met with at an average depth of five or six feet.
The mineral kingdom does not afford much variety; iron is abundant; mica and mica slate have been found at Kelmscott, and coal in the neighbourhood of King George's Sound. There is a blue clay of which bricks are made; calcarious rock is found along the coast; a ferruginous sandstone in several places; also soft grit,[2] or calcarious sandstone, which hardens an exposure to the air, and answers well for building purposes; in some situations shells and the roots of trees are found imbedded in it; I have not observed the trunks of trees in it as mentioned by the French navigators. The Darling range of mountains, which rise about two thousand feet above the level of the sea, and are capped with fine evergreen mahogany, are chiefly granite, with some quartz. The cleaning of the ground and the tillage are not very laborious, but, from the high price of labour, an expensive work; oxen which cost from forty to fifty pounds per pair, and horses from fifty to one hundred and fifty each, are used in the ploughs; and farming is carried on in the English style, as far as practicable: the crops are sowed in May, June, July, and August, and sometimes so late as September, and reaped in December, January and February; the early crops succeed the best.
Along the banks of the rivers may be seen fields of wheat, barley, oats, peas, potatoes, turnips, pumpkins, Indian wheat, &c. intermixed with fine pasture land. The sandy soil is covered with coarse herbage, on which cattle thrive remarkably well; on the good soil, about sixteen kinds of grasses are met with, amongst which the kangaroo grass is conspicuous. The gardens furnish most kind of edible vegetables in great abundance; some of which may be obtained at all seasons. Amongst these are cabbages, endive, beet, parsley, cresses, leeks, onions, radishes, carrots, nole-kole, parsnips, turnips, artichokes, vegetable marrow, and cauliflower; also cucumbers, pumpkins, water cresses, tomatos, cayenne pepper, and musk melon, rock melon, and water melon, in great plenty and perfection. The fruits now thriving are the grape, fig, peach, almond, apple, pear, strawberry, sloe, plum, several varieties; olive, the common and white mulberry, pine apple, plantain, sugar cane, Cape gooseberry besides these, there are several others that will ripen here, which, in colder countries, never come to perfection; such as lemons, citrons, oranges; and much praise is due to that excellent botanist Mr. Drummond for being the first in succeeding to raise these fruits.
Of the animals I shall only mention such as are used for food, beginning with the fish, which are abundant, cheap and good. Among these are, king's fish; snapper (sparus); mullet (mullus Malabaricus); whiting (eferianus) skip-jack (gasterosteus saltatrix); flounder (pleuronectes trichodactylus); herring (labrus); sting ray (ruja pastenaca); cobler (platystacus); crawfish, crabs, shrimps, oysters, muscle. &c.
Horned cattle, sheep, goats and pigs furnish the inhabitants with meat of prime quality, milk, butter and cheese. The pig was a moat useful animal; it increased rapidly, and soon supplied fresh meat for the settler, a matter of great importance in the early period of the colony, in checking the scurvy; which disease became very general from the long continued use of salt meat. The domestic fowls are turkeys, ducks, geese, pigeons, and the common fowl.
In the words kangaroo (macropus major) brush kangaroo (macropue elegans), bandicoot and opossum (petaurus), were tolerably plentiful as also the bustard (otis tarda); emeu (Rhea Novæ Hollandiæ); black swan (cygnus atratus); cockatoo (psittacus galeritus and psittacus funereus); bronze pigeon (colomba chalcoptera); wild duck (anas fera); quails (coturnix) parrot (platycercus scapulatus) parroquets, several kinds (psittacus formosus); birds of paradise (scythrops psittacus); swamp pheasant (cuculus phasianus); wattle bird (merops); snipes and several other small birds.
Three rivers intersect this spacious valley, viz. the Swan, the Canning, and the Murray. They are supposed to have their source in small streams in the Darling range of mountains, which unite, gradually increase in size, and run from east to west, in a tortuous direction, with a gentle current, into the sea; they are affected twice a day by the tides, which render the water brackish during the summer months, but it is fresh and fit for use at other seasons. They are shallow for the most part; in some places called the "flats" it is difficult at low water to get a boat over; the Swan is however navigable to vessels carrying three or four tons as far as Perth, that is, about twelve miles from the coast; the banks vary alternately on each side into hilly points and extensive flats, and are either sandy, alluvial or loamy, according to the tract of country they pass through. They are studded by trees, but neither the height of the banks, nor the number of trees, shade the water from free exposure to the sun and winds. Shoals of fish occasionally come up these rivers from the sea, and periodical floods occur after heavy rains, which overflow the banks and leave a deposit of alluvium on the low grounds; such a circumstance occurred in the winter of 1830. The fallen trees and stumps contribute much to increase these floods. Fresh water lagoons are numerous; there are also some containing salt water.
The water of the wells is abundant, and has the taste, odour, and transparence of the most perfect kind; it sparkles in the glass, and is found to answer to the utmost for all domestic purposes. It boils without leaving a sediment; is easily digested, excites the appetite, and may be drank freely without relaxing the stomach.
In the early period of the colony, there was some difficulty in finding good water along the coast, and in some other situations, but it was afterwards ascertained that it arose from the wells not having been made sufficiently deep. The water of some of the wells has still a darkish appearance, from not being properly cleared of roots of trees and other vegetable matter; in some places the water is impregnated with iron. In the government garden at Perth, there is a chalybeate spring which has been found useful in cases where a mild tonic is required. A small quantity of carbonic acid, carbonate of iron, and of muriate of soda, were found by analysis in this water; but I had not the means of ascertaining the exact proportions.
The strongest winds are from the north-west; the next in force from the south-west: the north wind is the hottest, and if long continued during the summer (which rarely happens) shrivels up vegetables and destroys their tender shoots. During the summer months there is a regular land and sea breeze, almost daily; the former of a morning from the east and north-east, the latter sets in about noon from the south and south-west; these winds render the intense heat of the sun less inconvenient and dangerous; the nights are cool, and the mornings and evenings agreeable. About 2 p. m. the thermometer begins to descend, and the air gradually becomes cooler. During the winter the winds from the north-west and south-west are sometimes very boisterous; two or three gales occur in each winter, and are so violent at times as to drive ships which happen to be in Gage's roads from their anchors. However, no such accidents have occurred in the harbour of Cockburn Sound, where ships ride in great safety at all seasons. The sky in summer is clear and of a beautiful azure, without cloud, and with very little rain; moderate dews descend after sunset As the autumn approaches, the weather becomes less serene; the sky is occasionally darkened with clouds, and lightning and thunder with heavy showers occur. These rains are in sudden heavy showers, with intervals of fair weather and sunshine. As they come after a long scorching summer they are very acceptable and beneficial, for they mitigate the excessive heat of the air, and, softening the sun-burnt earth, render it capable of being cultivated. In winter it rains for the most part of two or three days together, then an interval of eight ox ten days of fine weather takes place. In damp weather a fog is seem occasionally of a morning or evening rising from the valleys and borders of the rivers, and ascending to the high grounds. Hail of a large size, about an inch in diameter, is sometimes mixed with the rain; snow has not been seen once, and ice is rare, being only seen out of doors a few times in the morning during the winter; it soon disappears after sun rise. A fire is agreeable morning and evening in the winter and in wet weather, but on the whole rather a luxury than an absolute want. The winter is a season of flowers; the beautiful Metrosideras, Styphelea, Hibbertia, a sweet scented little plant, called May, Oxylobium, and others, bloom at this season and, as the spring advances, a profusion of others succeed, amongst which the Anigozanihos, Kennodya, Hakea, Hovea, Helichrysum, Orchideæ, Drosera, and Thysanotus juncus, or fringed violet, are conspicuous. The latter part of the spring is significantly termed by the natives, the "season of the yellow flowers," the meadows being enamelled with flowers of all colours, but the yellow predominating to a great degree.
Adjoining the Swan River district, and eastward of the Darling range of mountains, is an extensive tract of fine pasture land; the part at present settled is called Yorkshire; it is a cheerful country, well watered, covered with a short close herbage, free from underwood, and thinly timbered, and having a soil fit for raising all sorts of grain suitable to the climate. The merino and other breeds of sheep thrive well here; some of the wool has already been sent home, and brought a high price in the London market. Salt mines have been met with in this district, near the site of a town called Beverly.
After giving these hints on the natural history of the colony, I should proceed next in order to describe the manners and customs of the inhabitants.
In the month of June 1829, His Excellency Sir James Stirling, Governor and Commander in Chief, with the Civil Officers in the ship Parmelia, attended by His Majesty's Ship Sulphur, having on board a detachment of the 63d regiment, under the command of Captain Irwin, arrived and took possession of the colony. Soon afterwards, the settlers commenced to arrive, and continued to pour in rapidly, until the latter end of 1830; at which period the population amounted to about two thousand. The ships which carried them out bore a strong resemblance to Noah's ark, being crowded to excess with all manner of beasts, birds and plants, as well as men, women and children, and provisions. If we suppose the population of one of the agricultural parishes in England, with a sprinkling of half pay officers of the navy and army, some gentlemen from the East and West Indies, and a few cockneys, put down on the shores of a wilderness, it will give some idea of the individuals who were destined to become the founders of this interesting new Colony.
The settlers may be divided into two classes, viz. gentlemen and labourers, many of them married and having young families, others single. Amongst the former, were a large proportion of highly respectable individuals, who were accustomed to refined society, with the comforts and luxuries of life; amongst the latter, were some industrious, able and valuable servants, but with these were mixed up a large number of idle and worthless men, amongst whom drunkenness was a constant vice. Perhaps it will be expected that I should say something here of the soldiers, but I may not say with Cleghorn, it is a task I would rather avoid,—pudet hæc opprobria nobis, &c. To say the least, the leaven of good amongst them was in much greater proportion than amongst the lower classes of settlers; and the complimentary address, voted to the detachment by the respectable inhabitants on its quitting the colony, is a strong proof of their good conduct.
The first object of the settler in landing was to get up a temporary shelter for himself and those in his establishment; these were for a time of a wretched description. Some used single tents, which afforded but little protection from the heat of the sun by day, and the cold and winds by night. Others were accommodated in huts built of green wood, and pervious to every shower that fell; whilst many of the lower classes had no other awning day or night, than the canopy of heaven. After a little time, when the settlers got on their grants, buildings of a better description began to spring up. Some had wooden houses, which they brought out with them from London. Others had the same description of house made for them in the colony. Some erected houses of wattle and dab; that is, posts, about eight feet in height, erected at some distance from each other, and the intermediate spaces filled up with clay; to this was added a thatched roof and a chimney, which altogether formed a very comfortable dwelling. So soon as bricks could be made, or stone procured in sufficient quantity, good houses of such materials came into fashion.
During the first months of the colony, much anxiety was caused by the straying and loss of cattle in the bush, and by exposure to the weather of valuable plants and goods. Had any individual established a farm for the reception of cattle, and a ware-house to receive goods, it would have amply repaid him, and been the means of saving a vast deal of valuable stock and other property. No blame can attach to the government for want of arrangement on this head, as the settlers were apprized previous to leaving England, that they were to do every thing for themselves, and not to expect any assistance whatever from government. The zeal and activity, the kindness and attention, of Sir James Stirling, the Governor, in providing for all the wants and wishes of the people, so far as he had the means, were the theme of universal praise, and he was supported to the utmost by all his officers.
Travelling overland, or "travelling in the bush" as it is called, where neither roads nor houses were to be met with, though an interesting, was often a hazardous undertaking; but the danger did not arise from beasts of prey, none being met with in this country; but from the want of so simple a thing as a pocket compass. Being unprovided with this little instrument, was often the cause of many anxious hours as well as sleepless nights being passed in the bush. When the sun is clouded, so that one cannot guide his course by it, it is astonishing how readily you may go the wrong way; going a few yards out, will lead miles astray.
Things went on agreeably till about the beginning of the winter of 1830, when the supplies brought out from England, consisting chiefly of salt meat, biscuit and rum, became nearly exhausted; the crops which had been rather sanguinely calculated on, were scanty; provision reached a high price, owing to the irregularity of the supplies, and monopoly of the merchants; a dread of scarcity of food prevailed; much fatigue, anxiety and exposure to the weather, had been undergone, and, to fill up the measure of evils, a flood took place in the rivers after heavy rains, which caused them to rise from fifteen to twenty feet above their usual level. All who had commenced their buildings on the low ground were obliged to desert them, and commence anew on higher ground. Scurvy now set in, also fever and dysentery; these diseases were mostly confined to the working classes, amongst whom there was much disease and some mortality; whilst among the higher classes, who were, comparatively speaking, well provided with food and lodging, and among whom temperance was more practised, there was but little disease and no mortality. A fear of famine existed at three different periods. Ships, however, always happily arrived in good time to prevent any mischief; the crops in the second harvest were more abundant than the first, and have continued to increase every season, in such ratio as to satisfy every competent judge that the crops of succeeding seasons will be sufficient for the whole population, and render them altogether independent of supplies from without As the settlers got comfortably housed, and obtained vegetables from their gardens, and fresh meat from the increasing flocks, the scurvy gradually gave way, and at length ceased altogether. The fevers became fewer, and of milder character, as the country became cleared and drained.
The endemic diseases appear to be a subacute form of inflammation of the mucous membranes, viz. opthalmia or inflammation of the mucous membrane of the eye; dysentery, or inflammation of the mucous membrane of the intestines, and catarrh, or inflammation or congestion of the mucous membrane of the nares and air passages. Rheumatism was occasionally met with during damp weather in winter and autumn; also a low fever, the gastero-enterite. Providence is here, as in all other places, good and wise, and supplies remedies on the spot for the diseases which occur. Thus we find the hirudo medicinalis abundant in the lagoons, a well known remedy in these diseases; also aperients, as the kernel of the fruit of Zamia, and the produce of the Eucalyptus mannifera; astringents, as the red gum of the Eucalyptus resenifera which much resembles dragons blood, and the bark of the wattle, particularly the green, or Acacia decurrens, which contain much tannin; aromatics, as the Eucalyptus piperita, and Leptospermum, pennyroyal, Pulegium; and diaphoretics, as Sassafras, Cryptocarya glaucescens. No doubt many other medicinal plants may be obtained. I do not mean to assert that the diseases of this country are always confined to the mucous membranes; on the contrary, I have known them occasionally affect the serous membranes, and also the solid viscera, but I conceive this to be the tissue generally attacked, and in which disease mostly commences; this, however, is only thrown out as a hint to future inquirers, which I do not much insist upon, my object being to record facts, rather than form hypotheses.
The exportable commodities which the soil and climate are capable of producing, are woods of various kinds, for cabinet use and for ship building, and shingles; the barks of several of the indigenous trees, especially that of the mimosa, containing tannin in a highly concentrated state; gums of various species and qualities, particularly gum arabic; salt of an excellent quality is found in Rottenest Island; salt-fish has been already exported to the Isle of France and India; seals, of the kind from which the fur is obtained, are very plentiful on the coast;—the seal fishery will open two sources of wealth to the colonists; the first being a trade in skins, the second in seal oil. The sperm and black whale fishery will afford articles of profitable export, and tend, also, to make the settlement important for the refitting and victualling of vessels engaged in the trade. Wheat and flour find a ready sale in the Isle of France; it is more favourably situated for that market than either Van Dieman's Land or Sydney. Fine wool has been already exported and approved of in the London market—hides, tallow, and horns; tobacco, wine, flax and hemp; cotton, almonds, aniseed, bees wax, and honey; barrilla, cheese for India and China, carraways, cochineal, coriander; dried fruit, such as figs, currants, raisins, and prunes; hops, vegetable oils, olives, citrons, oranges, lemons, &c. &c. to which may be added the very important article, silk.
Of the Aborigines or natives, I shall only say so much as occasional intercourse with them has enabled me to become personally acquainted with.
On the first meeting of the settlers with the natives, the latter seemed alarmed, and withdrew; after a little time, however, they gained more confidence, and a friendly intercourse became established; this continued for some months, during which time the natives occasionally rendered a little assistance in labour, for which they were rewarded with food, particularly bread, of which they became very fond. The propensity to thieving, inherent among the Swan River, as well as all other, savages, soon began to display itself; whenever an opportunity offered food and implements belonging to the settler were carried off; the lower classes would make no allowance for their large organ of acquisitiveness, and chastised them severely, whenever they discovered the theft. The natives, who appear to enjoy property in common, did not understand being punished for taking their neighbours' goods, and resented the insult. They attacked the houses of the settlers, generally of those living in isolated places, distant from the towns, plundered them, and sometimes murdered whomsoever they caught in the house. They also speared the cattle, and killed and carried away the sheep. In the rencontres which took place on these occasions, several black and eleven white men were killed, and a great many wounded. The government, anxious to put a stop to these atrocities, which endangered both life and property, offered a reward for the capture of Yagan, a supposed chief and ringleader. It was not long before this daring fellow, with two of his companions, were entrapped into a boat and made prisoners; they were sent to the island of Carmac, with an instructor, and two soldiers as a guard, for the purpose of being taught our language to interpret with their countrymen. After three weeks confinement, they rose one night, while the party in charge of them were asleep, seized a boat, and regained the main land and liberty. They were now forgiven, and with the rest of their tribe, became again on friendly terms with the settlers. Their genius for thieving could not, however, remain quiet; they were soon again discovered attempting to rob a store at Freemantle which contained provisions: the proprietor being alarmed got out of bed, fired on them, and shot one dead. Their rule in such cases being the lex talionis, they watched an opportunity for revenge. In a few days they observed a cart laden with provisions, and accompanied by two men, proceeding into the country; they proceeded to a lonely place in the road, where the cart was to pass, and waited for it. On its arrival there, the men were attacked and both murdered. A gentleman rode up while they were in the act, fired two shots at them without effect, and identified the three principals, named Midgegoroo, Yagan and Monday. The government immediately offered a reward for their capture, dead or alive; but the miscreants evaded search for some time; at length Midgegoroo was made prisoner by Captain Ellis, superintendent of native tribes, and a party of the 63d regiment, brought in and placed in the jail of Perth on the 16th of May 1833. He was tried and found guilty soon after, and was shot on the 24th of the same month. Not long after Yagan was met by a lad, the servant of a gentleman up the country, who shot him dead. Mercy was extended to Monday, who still lives and is the most daring of his tribe.
The severe and merited punishment inflicted on these unhappy individuals, has had a most salutary effect; the tribes have ever since conducted themselves peaceably, and are new on friendly terms with the inhabitants. It would to have been necessary to read them a severe lesson to teach them our superiority, and this could only be done by some summary punishment. The result proves that severity in the beginning is, in such cases, humanity in the end. It is to be hoped that these examples will be the means of preventing any farther effusion of blood. The tribes are now under the care of superintendents, and daily receive rations from government. This arrangement, with moderate forbearance on the part of the settlers, will no doubt be the means of saving much property and preventing the waste of many useful lives.
The natives of western Australia are of middle stature, slender in limb, and many of them with a protuberant abdomen. The only article of dress is the waistband, or noodlebul, which is a long yarn of worsted, spun from the fur of the opossum, wound round the waist several hundred times; the cloak (booka), of kangaroo's skin, is worn chiefly by the women and old men, and occasionally, in the winter time, by the young men; they wear it as a mantle over the shoulders, fastened at the right shoulder with a rush (boerno). The large skins of the male kangaroo are appropriated to the women; the single men ornament their head with feathers, dogs' tails and other matters, and sometimes have the hair long and bound round the head, the women, who are mostly plainer than the men, use no ornaments and wear their hair quite short Both sexes smear their faces and the upper part of the body with red pigment (wilgu), mixed with grease, which gives them a disagreeable odour. Their hair is frequently matted with the same pigment. When fresh painted all over, they are a brick dust colour, which gives them a most singular appearance. They have the same practice amongst them as at Sydney and King George's Sound, of cutting gashes on their body, and raising an elevated cicatrix: it is done chiefly on the shoulders and chest, and is both a distinguishing mark for different tribes, and an honorary distinction. The septum of the nose is also perforated, in which a feather or small bone is worn. Ornaments, however, are not considered as marking the man of authority, for they are worn by the young single men. Every individual of the tribe, when travelling or going to a distance from their encampment, carries a fire stick for the purpose of kindling light; and in winter they are scarcely ever without one under their cloaks for the sake of heat. It is generally a cane of Banksia grandis, which has the property of keeping ignited for a considerable time. Rotten bark or touchwood is also used for the same purpose. They are very careful to preserve this, and will even kindle a fire by friction, or otherwise, to revive it. Their weapons consist of spears of two or three kinds, which are propelled with a throwing stick (meero). They have also a knife (tapo), stone hammer (ugardee), and curl koilee, or curved flat weapon, similar to the bomerang of the New South Wales natives.
The spears (gudye) are made of a long slender stick, about the thickness of a finger, of a heavy tough quality, supposed to be the black wattle; they are scraped down to a very fine point, and are hardened and straightened by the assistance of fire. Those intended for hunting and fishing, called moongaul, are barbed with a piece of wood fastened on very neatly and firmly with kangaroo sinew (peat), and the ligature covered with gum obtained from the grass tree. They are about eight feet in length; the war spears are longer and heavier, and are armed, for five or six inches from the point, with pieces of sharp stones fixed in gum, resembling the teeth of a saw, the stones increasing in size, the smallest being at the point; glass has been substituted for the stones where broken bottles have been found; each man carries from two to five spears.
The throwing stick (miero) is about two feet long and four inches wide, narrowing at each extremity; at the handle is fixed a piece of gum (wank), in which is inserted a sharp edged stone (tannela), which is used to scrape the point of the spear when blunted by use. At the outer end of the mecro is a small wooden peg (picota), which is inserted into a hole at the end of the spear, and by which it is propelled. The miero is also used at close quarters in their fights.
The hammer (uguadu) is made with a lump of gum having two stones imbedded in it, stuck on to the extremity of a short stick; it is used in climbing trees, in throwing at and killing animals, in breaking down grass trees, and for the common purposes of axe and hammer.
The knife (tapo), is a stick with sharp edged stones fixed in a bed of gum, at the end and for two or three inches down the side, forming a serrated instrument. The koilee, or boomering, is seldom used as a weapon, but for skinning the kangaroo, and also for amusement; some are curiously carved.
Their wigwams (boorno) are merely composed of a few small twigs stuck in the ground, and bent over in the form of a bower, about four feet high and five or six wide. They thatch them slightly with the leaves of the grass tree; in rainy weather they are roofed with pieces of bark, upon which stones are placed to secure them from being blown away; but they afford a miserable protection from the weather. They are generally erected in a sheltered spot, near water, with the back towards the prevailing wind, and a fire is kept burning constantly in the front; one hut contains several individuals in a crowded state—the dogs, also, are admitted to a share of their bed. An encampment rarely consists of more than seven or eight huts; for, except during the hunting and fishing season, at which time large parties assemble together, their numbers are generally small, and two or three huts suffice. The number of individuals, however, seldom exceed fifty. The huts are so arranged as not to overlook each other; the single men have one to themselves, the children sleep with the women in a large hut near the husbands: these encampments generally consist of near relatives, and comprise families rather than tribes.
Those families who have locations on the sea coast, quit it during the winter for the interior, and the natives of the interior in like manner pay visits to the coasts during the fishing seasons. As the country does not abound in food, they are seldom stationary, removing, according to the time of year, to those parts which produce the articles of provision which may be in season. During the winter and early spring they are very much scattered, but as summer advances they assemble in greater numbers. It is at this season that they procure the greatest abundance of game; it is done by setting fire to the dry underwood and grass which rapidly burns. With a kind of torch, made of the dry leaves of the grass tree, they set fire to the sides of the covert, by which the game is inclosed and cannot escape. The hunters, concealed by the smoke, stand in the paths most frequented by the animals, and spear them with facility as they pass by. On these occasions vast numbers of animals are destroyed; the violence of the fire is frequently very great, and extends over many miles of the country, but this is generally guarded against by their burning it in consecutive portions. The women also kindle fires, but only for the purpose of taking bandicoots; they sometimes however, accompany the men at the larger firings for kangaroos or waleby. As soon as the fire has passed over the ground, they walk over the ashes in search of lizards and snakes, which are thus destroyed in great numbers, and those which have escaped their holes are easily discovered. In the chase the hunters are assisted by dogs, which they catch young and domesticate; but they take little pains to train them to any particular mode of hunting. In size and appearance they resemble our fox hounds; they appear to have a very fine scent, and draw upon their game like a pointer, after which they spring upon or chase it. When the owner does not wish the dog to follow he ties the foreleg to the neck with a band of rushes, and leaves him in a shady place; he frequently carries the dog on his shoulders. They are excellent watch dogs, and will attack strangers; in the wild state they are sometimes killed by the natives, who, eat their flesh, but of the skin no use is made. The mode in which they hunt the kangaroo is in small parties, or singly; they select a time when the rain is pouring heavily, or the wind blowing;hard to prevent the noise of their approach being heard, for the kangaroo is very quick in hearing, and always on the alert. The hunter creeps upon them with the greatest caution, and generally succeeds in approaching them unobserved. If possible they keep the wind in their face, and when one is observed they take off their cloak, and when the animal stoops or turns his hack upon them they hastily advance, keeping a bush between, them for concealment. As they approach their prey, they move very lightly in a stooping posture, and only at the time when the noise of the, wind prevents their footsteps being heard. Should the kangaroo turn, round and observe them, they instantly stop and remain perfectly motionless until he resumes his feeding. In this way they approach within a few yards of their prey, and then, pierce him with their, spears; the instant he falls they sun up and dispatch him with their hammers by blows on the head. The first operation is to extract the two front teeth of the lower jaw, which they use to sharpen spear points; then they seize the tail, and, taking the end in the mouth, bite off the tip, and by pulling, extract the sinews which are inserted in it; these are bound round a stick, and dried for use, either for the purpose of stitching the mantles or tying the barbs on the spears. Another mode of hunting the kangaroo, when huntsmen are numerous, is by surrounding and gradually approaching the game, until they get sufficiently near to spear them.
The emu is speared chiefly in the winter, at which time they lay their eggs; when a nest is found, the hunters conceal themselves behind a bush near it, and endeavour to secure the male bird first; the female they are pretty certain of unless she has been disturbed, when she will forsake the nest. Emus however are not very often procured by the natives, but with them kangaroos are highly esteemed) as articles of food; lizards also afford a favourite repast, and, at some seasons, form a considerable portion of their food; there are three species that ere eaten. The snakes which are eaten by the natives are of several kinds; when the natives kill one they are careful to beat its head to pieces before they take it up; they then examine if it has recently eaten, and if it has indigested food in its stomach, they reject it; for, if eaten, they say it would cause violent vomiting. At the spring time of the year they live principally upon the eggs and young of birds, chiefly of the parrot tribe, bat also of hawks, ducks, swans, pigeons, cockatoos, land turtle, &c. They are extremely expert at climbing trees, which they do by notching the bark with their hammers, in the same manner as is practiced in Port Jackson. Thus they procure opossums, which they trace to their holes by the marks of their claws upon the bark; there are two species, one the common ring-tail (uwarra), the other, comal: they are not often found in the same districts, the cernul living chiefly in lofty and thick woods, whilst the ring-tail is frequently found in swamps, and the low brush which surrounds them. The comal is of larger size and much lighter colour, with a brownish bushy tail; it is also fatter, the fur is longer, of a whitish colour, and is spun by the natives into a kind of worsted, called by them peteroe, of which the noodle buls are made; the fur of the ring-tailed opposum is not used. That of both species is easily detached from the skin. The comal is frequently hunted with dogs by moonlight, when it is either speared in its flight, or driven to its haunt in some hollow tree; the natives then make a hole, and extract it, but should it be too difficult or troublesome, they kindle a torch of grass-tree leaves and push it into the hole, when, in attempting to escape, the animal is easily taken.
During the summer and autumn months the natives derive a large proportion of their food from fish. They have no canoes, neither do they swim well. They have neither nets, nor hook and line, and the only weapon they use is the spear, with which they are very dexterous. In the mouths of streams they take large quantities by weirs made of bushes; hut the most common method is pursuing the fish into shoal water and spearing them, or as they lie basking on the surface. Fish being very plentiful, they often kill more than is sufficient for present use; in this case they roast them, and, separating the flesh in large flakes from the bones, pack it carefully up in soft bark, in which way it will keep good for several days. Immediately on killing a large fish, they make a small opening just below the gills, through which they extract the entrails; if there be any fat, it is carefully separated; the bowels, liver, &c. they cook and eat. Although sharks are numerous, the natives are not at all alarmed at them; sometimes they will spear them, but never eat any part of the body. Sting-rays and maiden-rays are also common, but not eaten; though sometimes killed for amusement. Crawfish ("challons") and prawns, are to be obtained in the Swan river in some quantities, the natives roast them in the ashes and eat them. Frogs ("cooyah"), of two or three species, are eaten, chiefly at the season of their spawning. Grubs of different kinds are eaten raw or slightly roasted; the eggs of the ant also form an article of food. Of the vegetables on which they feed a few kinds only are known; the following, however, are more used than any other, and may be said to form the staple article of diet: boom, wyeing, matta and sudening bean boovulerang, a species of yam which they are very fond of; the boom are scarlet roots, not unlike in shape and size to tulip roots. They roast them in the ashes, and then pound them between two flat stones, rubbing the latter with a ball of earth to prevent the root adhering to it; when thus prepared they are mucilaginous and of a glossy black colour; they may be considered the bread of the natives who live near the coast. The wyang is of the tribe orchideæ; it is very pleasant eating when roasted. The mutta is the small bulbous root of a rush; it is very fibrous, and only edible at one season; the roots of fern, sedge, and other plants, are also used as articles of food; also mushrooms of two species, and another kind of fungus. When the different species of banksia first come into bloom, they collect from the flowers a considerable quantity of honey, of which the natives are particularly fond, and gather large quantities of the flowers "monca" to suck; it is not, however, always to be procured: the best time is in the morning, when much dew is deposited on the ground; also in cloudy but not wet weather.
The natives at Swan river live upon the productions of nature, unassisted by art, varying at different seasons and in different districts; poor in quality, often scanty, and therefore compelling the natives to a vagrant life. The population consequently is far from numerous—they have no general chief, and associate and disperse as season or inclination leads them. Their wars appear to be more between individuals or families, than between tribes or districts. There are numerous subdivisions into tribes and classes, who appear to have little bond of union between them; the men go two or three together, unless they have some particular object in view; they are extremely jealous of their food, concealing and eating it silently and secretly; yet if others are present they usually give a small portion. When they are successful in hunting or fishing, they instantly make a fire, and eat a portion of their fish or game; the married men generally reserve a share for their wives. Of the children they appear to be very fond, and rarely chastise them; but their treatment of the women is not always so gentle, and many of then have spear wounds in the legs or thighs, inflicted by their husbands. The women are very useful to them, not only in preparing food, but also in preparing their cloaks, building their huts and other menial offices. They possess few utensils, and these are of the rudest construction; a piece of soft bark, tied at each end, serves for a drinking cup; the claw of a kangaroo they use for a needle, and through a hollow rush, or the wing bone of a bird (neveel), they suck the water, when it cannot be conveniently reached with their mouth. Polygamy is a general practice amongst them; one man sometimes having many wives. The girls appear to be at the disposal of the father, and are generally bespoke in their infancy; even before they are born we are told they were betrothed, if they prove to be females. The persons to whom the girls are betrothed are not infrequently men of middle or advanced age, and possessing already several wives; they are, however, often more equally matched. Like those of other savage tribes, the women suffer little from child-bearing, and even the next day walk out to seek their food as usual. For the first few weeks the child is carried on the left arm in a fold of the cloak, but subsequently is suspended on the shoulders; until they can ran alone, they are not clothed. In cases of twins one of the children is killed (of different sexes, the female being preserved), the reasons assigned for which measure are that a woman has not sufficient milk for two children, and cannot carry them and seek her food.
When individuals quarrel, it is taken up by their respective families; when a man is killed, his tribe instantly sets about revenging his death, but they are not particular whether they kill the principal offender or any other of his tribe. This mating of retaliation is, however, extended much farther; for if a man be killed by accident, the friends of the deceased will impute his death to some bulgal (or doctor) of an adverse tribe, and kill an individual belonging to it in retaliation. Also when a man is seriously ill, and fancies he shall not recover, he will attempt to kill some body, in hopes thereby of recovering. In their personal conflicts, they use their hammers, throwing sticks, and towks, to strike with, and the blows therewith inflicted would doubtless frequently be fatal, but they seem incapable of giving a heavy blow, and strike more like women. For depredations in each others grounds, or any slight cause, they are contented with spearing through the legs or thighs, and do not attempt to kill each other, and the moment one of the party is wounded the engagement ceases.
They have their doctors (bulgal) who attempt their cures by charms. On one occasion I witnessed the remedies applied for a sick child: the doctor inhaled the perfume of different plants, and then breathed into the mouth of the child; this was repeated several times; he also sat on the haunches like a monkey, and grinned most hideously at the child, jumping about occasionally, and repeating the grimace; he likewise rubbed his hand over the chest and stomach repeatedly, and snapped his lingers in the air. A native was one day writhing with pain on the ground in the barrack square; the bulgal approached him, and, with a piece of glass, cut from the angle to the symphisis of the chin on the right side. On looking into his mouth afterwards, to ascertain the disease, I saw a hollow tooth in the opposite side.
The diseases which they are chiefly subject to, are dysentry, opthalmia, catarrh and rheumatism, and these occur but seldom. Their poor-diet, want of clothing, and the miserable huts they dwell in, will readily account for their suffering from vicissitudes of the weather which give rise to these diseases. It is only surprising that they are so remarkably healthy.[3]
Previous to entering upon a description of the weather, I shall first suffer a few remarks on the topography of the town of Perth, where these observations were made.
Perth, the seat of government, is situated on the northern bank of the Swan river, eleven miles from Freemantle, on a gentle elevation thirty feet above the level of the river, and about forty above the sea. It is bounded to the south by the Swan river, which is three quarters of a mile broad opposite the town; to the north by a string of fresh water lagoons, which are continuous up to the mountains; to the east by an extensive plain terminating at the Darling range of mountains twenty miles distant; and to the west by mount Eliya, which, running north and south, affords considerable protection from the strong gales coming from the north west and south west. The Swan and Canning rivers unite immediately below the town in a large estuary, called Melville water: this fine expanse of the meeting of the waters much resembles two large lakes running into each other. The sea breeze in reaching the town is further cooled down during the hot weather by crossing these waters. The soil is light, dry and sandy, with the exception of the banks of the river, which is alluvial. The substratum is sandstone; the water in the springs abundant and wholesome, in some places impregnated with iron. The principal streets are ninety-nine feet wide; one street runs about a mile in length, and is intersected at right angles by several others: the houses are built of brick and mortar and some of wood; they are placed on separate allotments, each ninety-nine feet wide and three hundred and ninety-six feet long, which are fenced in; a portion of the ground is generally converted into a garden; the gardens in front of the houses, and the large trees interspersed between, with the boats passing up and down the river, give the town a cheerful and picturesque appearance. The streets are not yet paved, but there is an agreeable walk along the bank of the river, and the rides about the town, along the bush roads to Guilford and Freemantle, are pleasant. Population three hundred.
It may be said of Perth as Hippocrates formerly said of towns similarly situated, well exposed to the sun and winds and abundantly supplied with good water (Deagre locis et aquis—Opera omnia, page 195), hæ minus a mutationibus temporum officiuntur: and diseases are less severe and less common here than in most other places.
I may also here mention Freemantle, the town second in importance, which is situated on the coast close to Gage's roads, on the southern bank of the Swan river, where it disembogues into the sea. The streets run at right angles, are sixty-six feet wide. The houses are built of a soft grit or calcarious sandstone, which hardens on exposure to the air, looks well, and is found in abundance in the neighbourhood. It is chiefly inhabited by merchants population about three hundred.
There are several other towns in progress, the most advanced of which is Guilford, situated about eight miles higher up the river than Perth, on a pleasant terrace, in an agreeable neighbourhood, where the soil is uniformly good.
These things being premised, I proceed to describe the most remarkable changes of the weather during the four years included in this notice.
Whenever the thermometer is mentioned, it is to be understood of a large mercurial one, graduated according to Fahrenheit's scale, kept in a proper place within doors (either in a wooden building or a thatched hut, with a southern aspect) except when I describe the sun rays, the intensity of which was measured by a smaller instrument of the same kind, hung out of doors, at some distance from the walls of the houses; no difference was observed between them, except that the mercury in the smallest was soonest affected by heat or cold, and consequently a little quicker in its motions, which occasioned it being found a degree or a degree and a half higher in summer and as much lower in winter, than the quicksilver in the larger thermometer. The difference between the heat of the air warmed by the direct rays of the tun, and that within doors was on an average 18 degrees; whenever it was remarkably greater, notice will be taken of it. The observations were made at 7 a. m., 2 p. m. and 7 p. m. The highest degree of heat generally occurred at 2 p. m., soon after which period, the sea breeze had fully set in at Perth, and the thermometer commenced to descend. The height of the thermometer at a medium is calculated from its average height at these different hours. The barometer was included in the same case with the thermometer, the whole made by Cary of London. It was occasionally heard that the barometer rose a little before wet weather, but this was an exception to the general rule. I regret the want of an hygrometer prevented upon me from ascertaining the exact dryness or humidity of the atmosphere; but this deficiency is in some measure supplied by the number of rainy days being noted, as well as by extracts from the register of the pluviameter kept by my friend A. Colin, Esq. Colonial Surgeon at Garden Island and Perth—for which see Table at the end.
1830, March.— Was fine for the most part, a little rain fell on the 11th, also on the 24th, at new moon; heavy rains on the 18th, lightning and thunder on 31st; prevalent winds E.— N. and N. E.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | |
| Thermometer | 88 | 73½ | 58 |
| Barometer | 30.30 | 30.05 | 29.80 |
April.—Early part cloudy and showery, middle fine, latter end cloudy; showers fell on 1st, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, 16th, 24th, 27th and 30th; lightning and thunder on 16th, 22d, 24th and 27th; winds N. W.— S. W. and N. E.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | |
| Thermometer | 87 | 68½ | 54 |
| Barometer | 30.30 | 29.95 | 29.60 |
May.—Fine till 13th, when some rain fell in the evening, preceded by thunder and lightning; on the 14th very loud thunder and lightning with much rain; on 15th (last quarter moon) 20th and 21st heavy rains; a gale of wind on 21st from the south-west, which did much mischief to the shipping in Gage's roads, light rains on the 22d, 23d, 24th, 26th 27th, 28th, 29th, 30th and 31st; winds N. W. and S. W.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | |
| Thermometer | 84 | 63¾ | 45 |
| Barometer | 30.30 | 28.82½ | 29.50 |
June.— Much rain with thunder on the 1st; it continued fine afterwards till 13th (last quarter of moon), on which day and 14th March rain fell; heavy rains on the 21st, 22d and 23d; slight rain en 27th; remainder fine. Hoar frost early in the mornings of 2d, 3d, and 4th; winds north-east, north-west and south-west.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | |
| Thermometer | 70 | 55½ | 40 |
| Barometer | 30.15 | 29.82½ | 29.50 |
July.— Heavy on the 1st, 2d, 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th. Ice, the thickness of a shilling, out of doors, on mornings of 10th and 24th. It rained daily from 13th to 22d, with the exception of 19th, which was new moon. It also rained on 27th and 28th; lightning and thunder on 7th and 13th. Heavy squalls with hail stones, thunder and lightning, on 15th. Winds N. E.—N. W.— and S. W.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | |
| Thermometer | 65 | 51½ | 34 |
| Barometer | 30.20 | 29.91¼ | 29.62½ |
August.—It rained much on fifteen different days viz. 4th to 10th, (last quarter of moon), 16th, 19th, 20th to 24th, and 31st, with squalls from north-west and south-west; remainder fine; prevalent wind S. W.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | |
| Thermometer | 76 | 57¼ | 38 |
| Barometer | 30.35 | 30.07½ | 29.80 |
September.—Was warmer and drier than the preceding months, it rained on 1st, 2d, 9th, 14th and 19th. Winds N.— N. W.— and S. W.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | |
| Thermometer | 80 | 59¾ | 44 |
| Barometer | 30.40 | 30.15 | 29.90 |
October.— Was fine with the exception of 1st, 2d, 7th, 8th, (last quarter of moon) 19th, 10th, 15th, 16th (new moon) 17th, 18th, 26th and 27th, on which days rain fell. Heavy squalls on the 9th; thunder and lightning on 10th, 17th and 18th. Winds N. E. and S. W.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 78 | 62¾ | 46 | Barom. | 30.35 | 30.02½ | 29.9 |
November.— Twelve fine days, twelve cloudy, six rainy, viz. 3d, 4th, 22d, 23d, 29th and 30th (full moon); much lightning and thunder on evening of 22d at first quarter of the moon; winds N. E. and S. W.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 93 | 71¼ | 54 | Barom. | 30.25 | 30.02½ | 29.80 |
December.— Hot and dry, with the exception of 10th, 22d, 23d, 24th and 28th, on which days rain fell in slight showers. The thermometer at 103° in the shade, and 123° exposed to the sun's rays on 17th. Winds N.-N. E. and S. W.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 103 | 81½ | 62 | Barom. | 30.20 | 30.00 | 29.80 |
The prevalent diseases of this year were dysentery, opthalmia, fever, catarrhs and scurvy. A mild form of dysentery was the disease most commonly met with; cases have occurred in each month, but it prevailed most in April, after the weather began to break, with heavy rains, thunder and lightning: the medium range of the thermometer for the month being 68½, that of the barometer, 29.95.
1831.— The character of the seasons was, on the whole, milder in 1831, than in 1830; the winter more temperate, the rains more equally distributed through the seasons, and the winds more moderate. No severe gale occurred; during the summer the heat was less oppressive, and the medium range of the thermometer for the month of December five and a quarter degrees lower than, the corresponding month of last year.
January.— Hot and dry, except on the 5th, 13th and 14th, when some slight showers fell, at the changes of the moon; the 22d, 23d and 24th were very sultry, the thermometer rose in the shade to 102°, 104, and 106 at 2 p. m. on these successive days; and when exposed to the sun to 123, 127 and 130. The wind was from the north the greater part of the month: this is the hot wind of the colony; while it prevails, the weather is very sultry.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 106 | 82¾ | 68 | Barom. | 30.10 | 29.91¼ | 29.72½ |
Prevalent disease dysentery. During the month of February the regular land and sea breeze occurred almost daily; thunder and lightning on 7th, 12th, 13th and 14th, with rain on 7th and 14th. A few cases of ephemeral fever and rheumatism were met with.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 102 | 80½ | 62 | Barom. | 30.20 | 30.02½ | 29.85 |
March.—Was generally fine; some showers fell on 27th and 28th at full moon; the land and sea breeze very regular. In the early part of the month slight opthalmia appeared, towards the latter end, dysentery and fever.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 96 | 76¾ | 56 | Barom. | 30.20 | 30.02½ | 29.85 |
April.—Was fine for the greater part; the 10th, 29th and 30th cloudy and windy, with some rain; winds N. E. and S. W. The nights were cold. In the early part dysentery continued to prevail; about the middle and latter end scurvy.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 98 | 72½ | 48 | Barom. | 30.25 | 30.10 | 29.85 |
May.—Was variable with heavy rains on 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 14th, 18th (first quarter of moon), 19th, 20th, 21st and 22d, and dew at night Winds N. E. — N. and S. W. Scurvy and catarrhs most commonly met with ; also a few cases of pneumonia.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 78 | 63½ | 44 | Barom. | 30.40 | 30.15 | 29.70 |
June.—Was variable; the showers were frequent, but neither long continued nor heavy. Rain fell on 5th, 8th, 9th (new moon), 10th to 16th (first quarter), 17th, 21st, 22d and 23d; a severe thunder storm on the night of the 13th. Scurvy and catarrhs continued to prevail.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 70 | 58 | 38 | Barom. | 30.30 | 29.90 | 29.50 |
July.—Was fine with the exception of 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 15th, 16th (first quarter), 17th to 21st, 25th, 27th and 28th, on which days much rain fell. A severe thunderstorm on the 8th, with a shower of hail. Ice was found out of doors about the thickness of a shilling on the morning of the 9th (new moon). Winds N. E.— N. W. and S. W. There was but little disease.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 67 | 54¼ | 53 | Barom. | 30.40 | 30.05 | 29.70 |
August.—A good deal of rain fell on 3d to 6th, 9th, 10th, 11th, 18th to 22d (full moon) 24th to 29th (last quarter). It blew very fresh on the 5th, but there was not any such severe gale as occurred last winter. Winds N. E. and S. W. Catarrhs sometimes met with.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 76 | 59¼ | 42 | Barom. | 30.40 | 30.10 | 29.80 |
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 78 | 62¼ | 45 | Barom. | 30.30 | 30.00 | 29.70 |
October.—Was cloudy and fine alternately; it rained on 7th to 13th (first quarter), 16th to 20th (full moon); remainder fine. Winds N. E. S. W. Catarrhs and ephemeral fever.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 79 | 63 | 48 | Barom. | 30.40 | 30.07½ | 29.75 |
November.—Was squally and rainy at beginning; latter part fine. It rained on 3d, 4th, 5th, 6th, 8th, 9th, 18th, 19th (full moon), and 27th. During the early part no diseases; during the latter opthalmia. The 25th was very sultry. Thermometer in the shade at 95°; exposed to sun 130°. Winds W. and W. by S.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 95 | 69¾ | 54 | Barom. | 30.15 | 29.90½ | 29.66 |
December.—Was generally fine, and cooler than the corresponding month of last year, the medium range of the thermometer for the month being 5¼ degrees lower; slight showers fell on 23d, 28th, 29th and 30th. Winds N. E. and S. W. The opthalmia which commenced in November continued throughout this month.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 96 | 76¼ | 60 | Barom. | 30.25 | 30.07½ | 29.90 |
The prevalent diseases of this year, were similar to those of the last, viz. dysentery, opthalmia, fever, catarrhs and scurvy.
1832.—The weather this year was more variable and damp than either of the two preceding; there were a greater number of rainy days, and the winds have been generally higher, though no severe gale has occurred.
January.—During the early part fine, the middle cloudy, latter fine; lightning on 4th and 6th, loud thunder on 31st; rain on 15th (full moon) and 31st. Winds N. E. and S. W. Ephemeral fever the prevalent disease.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 99 | 76¼ | 61 | Barom. | 30.10 | 29.95 | 29.80 |
February.—Pine with the exception of eight cloudy days, on three of which it rained, viz. 3d, 4th and 10th; thunder on 3d and 26th. Winds N. E. and S. W. Opthalmia prevalent.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 106 | 78¾ | 60 | Barom. | 30.10 | 29.97½ | 29.85 |
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 95 | 77¾ | 62 | Barom. | 30.20 | 29.90 | 29.60 |
April—Was alternately cloudy, showery or fine, like April in England. It rained on 4th, 5th, 7th (first quarter of moon), 8th 11th, 18th, 20th, 21st, 22d (last quarter of moon), 23d, 26th, 27th, 29th, 30th (new moon); a thunder storm on 8th. Winds N. E. and N. W. Dysentery the prevalent disease.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 92 | 71 | 50 | Barom. | 30.30 | 30.10 | 29.90 |
May.— Rain fell on 1st to 6th (first quarter of moon), 9th to 13th, 17th, 18th, 20th, 21st, 25th and 26th. A heavy squall from N. W. on 18th. Winds £. N. E.—N. W.— S. W. Rheumatism.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 77 | 61 | 46 | Barom. | 30.50 | 30.00 | 29.50 |
June.—It rained on 4th, 5th (first quarter of moon), 6th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 13th, to 17th, 21st to 25th. Hoarfrost and ice on 3d—thunder storm, and large hail stones on 8th, with a heavy squall from S. W. Ephemeral fever.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 74 | 59 | 44 | Barom. | 30.60 | 30.20 | 29.80 |
July.—Was for the most part fine; it rained on 2d to 6th, 15th, 17th, 18th, 19th, 20th, 27th, 28th, 29th and 31st. Ice seen out of doors on mornings of 1st and 9th. Heavy squalls on 4th and 17th, attended by showers of large hail stones. Winds N. E.— N. W. and S. W. There was but little disease, chiefly catarrhs and rheumatism.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 70 | 55½ | 40 | Barom. | 30.35 | 29.97½ | 29.65 |
August.— Rain fell on the 1st, 4th, 8th, 12th, 18th (last quarter of moon), 19th, 23d, 29th, 30th and 31st; thunder storm on 11th. Heavy dew at night. Winds N. E. and S. W.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 76 | 61½ | 50 | Barom. | 30.30 | 29.97½ | 29.65 |
September.—Was cloudy, squally and rainy, much rain on 1st (first quarter of moon), and some on 2d, 3d, 4th, 6th, 7th, 12th, 13th, 14th, 15th, 18th, 20th, 21st, 22d, and 23d (new moon); thunder storm on 18th. Winds N. W. and S. W. Catarrhs, pleuritis and rheumatism. October.—Was squally and showery during early part; the middle fine; latter end, squally and rainy. Ephemeral fever, with, derangement of the biliary system, and cholera morbus, the prevalent diseases. Some rain on 1st (first quarter of moon), 2d, 3d, 6th, 7th, 8th; much on 9th (full moon); some on 10th, 13th, 18th, 21st, 27th, 30th, and 31st (first quarter of moon).
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 76 | 62¼ | 50 | Barom. | 30.25 | 29.87½ | 29.53 |
November.—A thunder storm and gale of wind, with heavy rain, on 1st; cloudy, showery and rainy on 9th: thunder storm on 10th; cloudy and showery on 18th, 19th, 20th, 21st, 22d and 23d; remainder fine. Wind S. W. Disease opthalmia.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 86 | 64½ | 52 | Barom. | 30.40 | 30.10 | 29.80 |
December.—Early part cloudy and showery, thunder storm on 4th middle fine, latter part squally and rainy, some rain on 1st to 5th, 10th 9 30th and 31st. Winds N. E. and S. W. Cephalalgia and boils.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 101 | 75 | 60 | Barom. | 30.10 | 29.90 | 29.70 |
The total number of cases of disease have been about one-third less this year than the last, and nearly one half less than in 1830. The diseases most frequently met with have been fever, rheumatism, and opthalmia; occasionally catarrh and cynanche tonsillaris; dysentery but seldom, and scurvy has nearly disappeared.
1833.—The weather this year was variable and damp, though less so than the preceding.
January.—During the early part was cloudy, middle fine, except on 16th and 21st when there was thunder and heavy rains; latter end fine; nights cold and heavy dew. Winds S. W.—S. E. and N. E.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 99 | 77½ | 59 | Barom. | 30.20 | 30.00 | 29.80 |
February.—The early part cloudy and sultry, on 1st thermometer at 99° in the shade, exposed to the sun's rays 125°; middle fine, latter end cloudy; some rain fell on 8th, 14th, 27th and 28th; lightning and thunder on 14th, 18th and 26th. Winds S. W. and S. E.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 99 | 78 | 61 | Barom. | 30.20 | 30.00 | 29.80 |
March.—Fine till 6th, on which day there was lightning, thunder and some rain, thunder on 8th and 9th, much rain on 10th and 13th, showery on 10th and 23d, squally on 15th,19th and 29th, remainder fine. Winds N. E.—N. W.—S. S. W.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 94 | 73 | 54 | Barom. | 30.40 | 30.02½ | 29.65 |
April.—Was alternately cloudy and tine, it rained on 2d, 7th and 24th. Heavy squall on 2d, hoarfrost of a morning at latter end. Winds N. E. and N. W.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 88 | 67½ | 50 | Barom. | 30.40 | 30.17 | 29.95 |
May.—It rained on 2d, 3d, 4th (full moon), 5th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 19th (new moon), 20th to 25th and 31st; heavy squalls on 10th from N. E.; remainder fine. Winds N. E. and N. W.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 79 | 64¼ | 46 | Barom. | 30.42½ | 30.06¼ | 29.70 |
June.—Much rain fell in this month, it rained on 2d (full moon), 3d 6th, 8th, 10th (last quarter of moon), 11th to 17th, 25th (full moon), to 30th; heavy squalls on 2d, from S. W. also squalls with thunder and lightning on 15th, 16th, 29th and 30th. Winds N. E.—N. W. and S. W.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 72 | 58½ | 40 | Barom. | 30.50 | 29.95 | 29.40 |
July.—Was very wet—it rained on 1st, 2d (full moon), to 5th, 9th to 12th, 14th, 16th, 18th, 22d, 24th (first quarter of moon), 25th to 29th, and 31st; hail on 3d; heavy squalls from N. W. on 18th, thunder and, lightning; and thunder with heavy rains on 27th. Winds N. and N. W.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 79 | 59¼ | 47 | Barom. | 30.40 | 30.10 | 29.80 |
August.—Rain on 1st, 2d, 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th (last quarter of moon), 13th, 14th, 15th, 16th (new moon), 19th, 27th, 28th, 29th, 30th, (full moon) and 31st, a thunder storm with heavy rain on 6th, on morning of 9th, heavy squalls from N. W. with lightning, thunder, hail and rain. Winds S. W.-S. E. and N. E.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 74 | 58½ | 46 | Barom. | 30.45 | 30.07½ | 29.70 |
September.—Beginning fine, middle cloudy and showery, latter end fine, some rain fell on 7th (last quarter of moon), 9th, 10th, 13th, 18th, 20th; (first quarter of moon), 21st, 24th and 30th; thunder and lightning with heavy rains on 24th. Winds N. W. and S.W.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 78 | 60¾ | 50 | Barom. | 30.40 | 30.10 | 29.80 |
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 88 | 66½ | 51 | Barom. | 30.25 | 30.07½ | 29.90 |
November.— Early part generally fine, middle cloudy and showery, and also latter end; rain on 8th, 14th, 18th, 20th, 21 st, 23d, 24th, 26th, 27th (full moon), 28th and 29th; lightning on 14th, and lightning and thunder on 17th and 26th. Winds E. N. E. and S. W.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 91 | 70¾ | 54 | Barom. | 30.30 | 30.05 | 29.80 |
December.— Early part fine, middle cloudy and sultry, latter end fine; rain on 1st, 27th (full moon), 30th end 31st; lightning and thunder on 13th, 28th, 29th, 30th and 31st. Winds N.— N. E. and S. W.
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | ||
| Therm. | 100 | 76 | 54 | Barom. | 30.30 | 30.05 | 29.80 |
TABLE OF METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS
| Year 1830. | THERMOMETER. | BAROMETER. | No. of days on which any rain fell. |
Quantity of rain | ||||
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | |||
| January | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.926 |
| February | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.394 |
| March | 88 | 73½ | 58 | 30.30 | 30.05 | 29.80 | 3 | .729 |
| April | 87 | 68½ | 54 | 30.30 | 29.95 | 29.60 | 9 | 1.087 |
| May | 84 | 63¾ | 45 | 30.15 | 28.82½ | 29.50 | 13 | 6.385 |
| June | 70 | 55½ | 40 | 30.15 | 29.82½ | 29.50 | 7 | 2.653 |
| July | 65 | 51½ | 34 | 30.20 | 29.91¼ | 29.62½ | 17 | 9.091 |
| August | 76 | 57¼ | 38 | 30.35 | 30.07½ | 29.80 | 15 | 5.280 |
| September | 80 | 59¾ | 44 | 30.40 | 30.15 | 29.90 | 5 | 1.634 |
| October | 78 | 62¾ | 46 | 30.35 | 30.02½ | 29.70 | 12 | 3.030 |
| November | 93 | 71¼ | 54 | 30.25 | 30.02½ | 29.80 | 6 | 0.928 |
| December | 103 | 81½ | 62 | 30.20 | 30.00 | 29.80 | 5 | 0.005 |
| Year 1831 | 32.142 | |||||||
| January | 106 | 82¼ | 38 | 30.10 | 29.91¼ | 29.72¼ | 3 | |
| February | 102 | 80½ | 62 | 30.20 | 30.02½ | 29.85 | 2 | |
| March | 96 | 76¾ | 56 | 30.20 | 30.02½ | 29.85 | 2 | |
| April | 98 | 72½ | 48 | 30.25 | 30.10 | 29.85 | 3 | |
| May | 78 | 63½ | 44 | 30.40 | 30.15 | 29.70 | 10 | |
| June | 70 | 58 | 38 | 30.30 | 29.90 | 29.50 | 14 | |
| July | 67 | 54¼ | 33 | 30.40 | 30.05 | 29.70 | 15 | |
| August | 76 | 59¼ | 42 | 30.40 | 30.10 | 29.80 | 18 | |
| September | 78 | 62¼ | 45 | 30.30 | 30.00 | 29.70 | 12 | |
| October | 79 | 63 | 48 | 30.40 | 30.07½ | 27.75 | 11 | |
| November | 95 | 69¾ | 54 | 30.15 | 29.90½ | 29.66 | 9 | |
| December | 96 | 76¼ | 60 | 30.25 | 30.07½ | 29.90 | 4 | |
| Year 1832. | THERMOMETER. | BAROMETER. | No. of days on which any rain fell. |
Quantity of rain | ||||
| Max. | Med. | Min. | Max. | Med. | Min. | |||
| January | 99 | 76¼ | 61 | 30.10 | 29.95 | 29.80 | 2 | |
| February | 106 | 78¼ | 60 | 30.10 | 29.97½ | 29.85 | 3 | |
| March | 95 | 77¾ | 62 | 30.20 | 29.90 | 29.60 | 5 | |
| April | 92 | 71 | 50 | 30.30 | 30.10 | 29.90 | 15 | |
| May | 77 | 61 | 46 | 30.50 | 30.00 | 29.50 | 17 | |
| June | 74 | 59 | 44 | 30.60 | 30.20 | 29.80 | 16 | |
| July | 70 | 55½ | 40 | 30.35 | 29.97½ | 29.60 | 14 | |
| August | 79 | 59½ | 44 | 30.30 | 29.97½ | 29.65 | 10 | |
| September | 76 | 61½ | 50 | 30.30 | 29.97½ | 29.65 | 15 | |
| October | 76 | 62¼ | 50 | 30.25 | 29.87 | 29.50 | 14 | |
| November | 86 | 64½ | 52 | 30.40 | 30.10 | 29.80 | 9 | |
| December | 101 | 75 | 60 | 30.10 | 29.90 | 29.70 | 7 | |
| Year 1833. | ||||||||
| January | 99 | 77½ | 59 | 30.20 | 30.00 | 29.80 | 2 | 0.004 |
| February | 99 | 78 | 61 | 30.20 | 30.00 | 29.80 | 2 | 0.090 |
| March | 94 | 73 | 54 | 30.40 | 30.02½ | 29.65 | 7 | 0.602 |
| April | 88 | 67½ | 50 | 30.40 | 30.17½ | 29.95 | 2 | 0.125 |
| May | 79 | 64¼ | 46 | 30.42½ | 30.06½ | 29.70 | 15 | 4.025 |
| June | 72 | 58½ | 40 | 30.50 | 29.95 | 29.40 | 18 | 9.353 |
| July | 70 | 59¼ | 47 | 30.40 | 30.10 | 29.80 | 20 | 6.511 |
| August | 74 | 58½ | 46 | 30.45 | 30.07½ | 29.70 | 16 | 3.744 |
| September | 78 | 60¾ | 50 | 30.40 | 30.10 | 29.80 | 9 | 1.405 |
| October | 88 | 66½ | 51 | 30.25 | 30.07½ | 29.90 | 8 | 0.546 |
| November | 91 | 70¾ | 54 | 30.30 | 30.05 | 29.80 | 11 | 0.354 |
| December | 100 | 76 | 54 | 30.30 | 30.05 | 29.80 | 4 | 0.076 |
| 26.925 | ||||||||
TABLE OF DEATHS, MARRIAGES, AND BIRTHS, AT PERTH.
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| Total marriages at Perth, from 1830 to 1833 inclusive... | 32 |
| Total baptisms at Perth, from 1830 to 1833 inclusive... | 130 |
TABLE of DEATHS, MARRIAGES, and BIRTHS, at FREEMANTLE.
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| Total marriages at Freemantle, from 1830 to 1833 inclusive... | 21 |
| Total baptisms at Freemantle, from 1830 to 1833 inclusive... | 24 |
I am indebted to the Rev. J. B. Wittenoom, the Colonial Chaplain, for the foregoing tables of deaths, marriages and births, which were copied from his Register. They will give some idea of the prevailing diseases and mortality for each Year, with the gradual decrease of sickness as the colony advanced. These tables however can only be looked upon as an approximation to the truth, as in the early state of a new colony, it was difficult to obtain correct information in all cases. They include settlers, soldiers, women and children.
The Colonial hospital being at Perth, all the worst cases of disease amongst the poor were sent into it from all parts of the colony: consequently the deaths were more numerous there than at Freemantle.
- ↑ Petroselinum prostratum, De Cand—Editor.
- ↑ M. Peron has attributed the peat abundance of the modern breccia of New Holland to the large proportion of calcarious matter, principally in the form of comminuted shells, which is diffused through the silicious sand of the shores in that country; and as the temperature, especially of the summer, is very high in that part of the coast where this rock has been principally found, the increased solution of carbonate of lime by the percolating water, may possibly render its formation more abundant there than in more temperate climates; but the true theory of these concretions, under any modification of temperature, is attended with considerable difficulty, and it is certain that the process is far from being confined to the warmer latitudes. Dr. Paris has given an account of a modern formation of sandstone on the northern coast of Cornwall, where a large surface is so covered with a calcarious sand that it becomes agglutinated into stone, which he considers as analogous to the rocks of Guadalope, and of which the specimens I have seen resemble those presented by Beaufort to the Geological Society from the shore at Rhodes. Dr. Paris ascribes the concretion not to the agency of the sea, nor to an excess of carbonic acid, but to the solution of carbonate of lime itself in water, and subsequent percolation through calcarious sand, the great hardness of the stone arising from the very sparing solubility of this carbonate, and consequently very gradual formation of the deposit. Dr. McCulloch describes calcarious concretions, found in banks of sand in Perthshire, which present a great variety of stalactitic forms, generally more or less complicated, and often exceedingly intricate and strange, and which appear to be analogous to those of King George's Bound and Severns Island, and he mentions as not unfrequcntly occurring in sand in different parts of England (the sand above the fossil bones of Norfolk is given as an example) long cylinders or tubes composed of sand agglutinated by carbonate of lime, or calcarious stalactite entangling sand, which, like the concretions of Madeira and those taken for corals at Bald Head, have been ranked improperly with organic remains. See King's Australia, appendix p. 595.—Swan river (Riviere des cygnes) upon this part of the coast, latitude 31-25 to 32, was examined by the French expedition. The rock in its neighbourhood consisted altogether of sandy and calcarious incrustations in horizontal beds, enclosing it is stated, shells and the roots and even trunks of trees.— Peron. vol 1, p. 179—Freycinet, p. 5—170.
- ↑ For a full account of the natives of King Georges Sound, see in Geographical Journal and King's Australia.