Observations on Man (6th edition)/Contents

The Doctrine of Vibrations, and its Use for explaining the Sensations.

General evidences for the dependence of sensation and motion on the brain	5
General evidences for the dependence of ideas on the brain	6
Instances shewing that sensations remain in the mind for a short time after the sensible objects are removed	ib.
The infinitesimal medullary particles vibrate during sensation	8
The aether	ib.
The uniformity, continuity, softness, and active powers of the medullary substance	10
The manner in which vibrations are communicated to the whole medullary substance	13
Presumptions in favour of the doctrine of vibrations	16
Corollaries from this doctrine	20
Materiality of the soul no consequence of it	21
Phenomena of sensible pleasure and pain agreeable to the doctrine of vibrations	22
Phenomena of sleep agreeable to the doctrines of vibrations	28

Ideas, their Generation and Associations, and the Agreement of the Doctrine of Vibrations with the Phenomena of Ideas.

The generation of the ideas of sensation	36
The repetition of sensory vibrations generates a disposition to corresponding vibratiuncles or miniature vibrations	37
The power of raising ideas by association in the simplest case	41
The power of raising miniature vibrations by association in the simplest case	43
The formation of complex ideas by association	46
The formation of complex miniature vibrations by association	50
The complex vibrations last-mentioned may be so exalted, in some cases, as to be no longer miniatures, but equal in strength to sensory vibrations	51

Muscular Motion, and its two Kinds, automatic and voluntary; and the Use of the Doctrines of Vibrations and Association, for explaining these respectively.

It is probable, that muscular motion is performed by the same general means as sensation, and the perception of ideas	54
Phaenomena of muscular contraction agreeable to the doctrine of vibrations	56
Propensity of the muscles to alternate contraction and relaxation agreeable to the doctrine of vibrations	57
The origin of motory vibrations	58
The general method of explaining the automatic motions by the doctrine of vibrations	59
The generation and association of motory vibratiuncles	64
The general method of explaining the voluntary and semivoluntary motions	65
The manner in which the endeavour to obtain pleasure, and remove pain, is generated	71

CHAP. II.

CONTAINING THE APPLICATION OF THE DOCTRINES OF VIBRATIONS AND ASSOCIATION TO EACH OF THE SENSATIONS AND MOTIONS IN PARTICULAR.

The Sense of Feeling.

The several kinds of feeling, and the general causes of the different degrees of exquisiteness in this sense	73
An inquiry how far the sensations of heat and cold are agreeable to the doctrine of vibrations	75
An inquiry how far the phaenomena of wounds, burns, bruises, lacerations, inflammations, and ulcers, are agreeable to the doctrine of vibrations	80
An inquiry how far the phaenomena of itching and titillation are agreeable to the doctrine of vibrations	81
An inquiry how far the sensations attending pressure and muscular contraction are agreeable to the doctrine of vibrations	82
An inquiry how far the phaenomena of numbness and paralytical insensibilities are agreeable to the doctrine of vibrations	83
An inquiry how far the phaenomena of venomous bites and stings are agreeable to the doctrine of vibrations	85
An inquiry how far the tangible qualities of bodies admit of an explanation agreeable to the doctrine of vibrations	86
The manner in which we are enabled to judge of the seat of impressions made on the external surface of our bodies	88
The manner and degree in which we are enabled to judge of the seat of internal pains	89
The manner and degree in which the pleasures and pains of feeling contribute, according to the doctrine of association, to the formation of our intellectual pleasures and pains	91
The ideas generated by tangible impressions	92
The automatic motions which arise from tangible impressions	93
The manner and degree in which these automatic motions are influenced by voluntary and semi-voluntary powers	95

The Sense of Taste.

The extent of the organ of taste, and the different powers lodged in the different parts of it	95
An inquiry how far the phaenomena of tastes, and their specific differences, are agreeable to the doctrine of vibrations	96
An inquiry how far the several sensations which affect the stomach and bowels are agreeable to the doctrine of vibrations	99
An inquiry how far the phaenomena of hunger are agreeable to the doctrine of vibrations	100
An inquiry how far the phaenomena of thirst are agreeable to the doctrine of vibrations	102
An inquiry how far the changes, generally made in the taste, in passing from infancy to old age, are agreeable to the doctrines of vibrations and association	ib.
An inquiry how far the longings of pregnant women are agreeable to the doctrines of vibrations and association	104
The manner and degree in which the pleasures and pains of taste contribute, according to the doctrine of association, to the formation of our intellectual pleasures and pains	105
The ideas generated by the several tastes	106
The automatic motions which arise from the impressions made on the organ of taste	ib.
The manner and degree in which these automatic motions are influenced by voluntary and semi-voluntary powers	111

The Sense of Smell.

The extent and powers of the organ of smell	113
An inquiry how far the general phaenomena of smell are agreeable to the doctrine of vibrations	114
An inquiry how far the specific differences of odours are agreeable to the doctrine of vibrations	115
The manner and degree in which pleasant and unpleasant odours contribute, according to the doctrine of association, to the formation of our intellectual pleasures and pains	116
The ideas generated by the several odours	117
The automatic motions which arise from the impressions made on the organ of smell	ib.
The manner and degree in which these automatic motions are influenced by voluntary and semi-voluntary powers	119

The Sense of Sight.

The immediate organ of sight, and its powers	120
An inquiry how far the phaenomena of colours are agreeable to the doctrine of vibrations	121
An inquiry how far flashes of light from strokes in the eye, dark spots, and giddiness, are agreeable to the doctrine of vibrations	124
An inquiry how far the judgments made by sight, concerning magnitude, distance, motion, figure, and position, are agreeable to the doctrine of association	126
An inquiry how far the phaenomena of single and double vision are agreeable to the doctrine of association	129
The manner and degree in which agreeable and disagreeable impressions made on the eye contribute, according to the doctrine of association, to the formation of our intellectual pleasures and pains	130
The ideas generated by visible impressions	131
The automatic motions which are excited by impressions made on the eye	135
The manner and degree in which these automatic motions are influenced by voluntary and semi-voluntary powers	139

The Sense of Hearing.

The immediate organ of hearing, and the general uses of the several parts of the external and internal ear	140
An inquiry how far the phaenomena of musical and other inarticulate sounds are agreeable to the doctrine of vibrations	141
An inquiry how far the judgments, which we make concerning the distance and position of the sounding body, are agreeable to the doctrine of association	143
An inquiry how far the power of distinguishing articulate sounds depends upon association	144
The doctrine of sounds illustrates and favours that of the vibrations of the small medullary particles	145
The manner and degree in which agreeable and disagreeable sounds contribute, according to the doctrine of association, to the formation of our intellectual pleasures and pains	146
The ideas generated by audible impressions	147
The automatic motions excited by impressions made on the ear	149
The manner and degree in which these automatic motions are influenced by voluntary and semi-voluntary powers	150

The Desire of the Sexes towards each other.

An inquiry how far the desires of the sexes towards each other are of a factitious nature, and agreeable to the theory of these papers

150

Section VII.

Other Motions, automatic and voluntary, not considered in the foregoing Sections of this Chapter.

An inquiry how far the motions of the heart, ordinary and extraordinary, are agreeable to the foregoing theory	153
An inquiry how far the action of respiration, with those of sighing, coughing, &c. are agreeable to the foregoing theory	156
An inquiry how far convulsive motions are agreeable to the foregoing theory	160
An inquiry how far the actions of walking, handling, and speaking, are agreeable to the foregoing theory	161

Section VIII.

The Relation which the foregoing Theory bears to the Art of Physic.

The art of physic affords many proper tests of the doctrines of vibrations and association; and may receive considerable improvement from them, if they be true

166

CHAP. III.

CONTAINING A PARTICULAR APPLICATION OF THE FOREGOING THEORY TO THE PHAENOMENA OF IDEAS, OR OF UNDERSTANDING, AFFECTION, MEMORY, AND IMAGINATION.

Words, and the Ideas associated with them.

Words and phrases must excite ideas in us by association; and they excite ideas in us by no other means	169
The manner in which ideas are associated with words	170
Consequences of this association of ideas with words	175
The nature of characters intended to represent objects and ideas immediately, and without the intervention of words	182
The use of the foregoing theory for explaining the nature of figurative words and phrases, and of analogy	183
The use of the foregoing theory for explaining the languages and method of writing of the first ages of the world	187
The general nature of a philosophical language; with short hints concerning the methods in which one might be constructed	199
An illustration and confirmation of the general doctrine of association, taken from the particular associations which take place in respect of language	201
Illustrations from musical sounds, colours, and tastes	202

Propositions, and the Nature of Assent.

The nature of assent and dissent, and the causes from which they arise	204
Rules for the ascertainment of truth, and advancement of knowledge, drawn from the mathematical methods of considering quantity	210
A general application of the theory of this and the foregoing section to the several branches of science	222

The Affections in general.

The origin and nature of the passions in general

231

Memory.

An inquiry how far the phaenomena of memory are agreeable to the foregoing theory

235

Imagination, Reveries, and Dreams.

An inquiry how far the phaenomena of imagination, reveries, and dreams, are agreeable to the foregoing theory

240

Imperfections in the Rational Faculty.

An inquiry how far deviations from sound reason, and alienations of the mind, are agreeable to the foregoing theory

245

Section VII.

The Intellectual Faculties of Brutes.

An inquiry how far the inferiority of brutes to mankind, in intellectual capacities, is agreeable to the foregoing theory

253

CHAP. IV.

THE SIX CLASSES OF INTELLECTUAL PLEASURES AND PAINS.

The Pleasures and Pains of Imagination.

An inquiry how far the pleasures and pains of imagination are agreeable to the foregoing theory

262

The Pleasures and Pains of Ambition.

An inquiry how far the pleasures and pains of ambition are agreeable to the foregoing theory

278

The Pleasures and Pains of Self-interest.

An inquiry how far the pleasures and pains of self-interest are agreeable to the foregoing theory

287

The Pleasures and Pains of Sympathy.

An inquiry how far the pleasures and pains of sympathy are agreeable to the foregoing theory

295

The Pleasures and Pains of Theopathy.

An inquiry how far the pleasures and pains of theopathy are agreeable to the foregoing theory

305

The Pleasures and Pains of the Moral Sense.

An inquiry how far the pleasures and pains of the moral sense are agreeable to the foregoing theory

309

Conclusion.

Containing some remarks on the mechanism of the human mind

313

THE SECOND PART.

INTRODUCTION.

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Distribution of the Second Part

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323

CHAP. I.

THE BEING AND ATTRIBUTES OF GOD AND OF NATURAL RELIGION.

Something must have existed from all eternity	325
There must be an infinite and independent Being	ib.
The infinite and independent Being is endued with infinite power and knowledge	327
God is infinitely benevolent	330
Five notions of infinite benevolence considered and compared together	338
There is but one God	341
God is a spiritual Being	ib.
God is an eternal and omnipresent Being	343
God is an immutable Being	344
God is a free Being	ib.
Holiness, justice, veracity, mercy, and all other moral perfections, ought to be ascribed to God in an infinite degree	345
God is to be considered by us not only as our Creator, but also as our Governor, Judge, and Father	347
The foregoing evidences for the divine attributes afford a proper foundation for natural religion	350
Natural religion receives great light and confirmation from revealed	352
Religion pre-supposes free-will in the popular and practical sense, i.e. it pre-supposes a voluntary power over our affections and actions	355
Religion does not pre-suppose free-will in the philosophical sense, i.e. it does not pre-suppose a power of doing different things, the previous circumstances remaining the same	357
The infinite power and knowledge of God exclude free-will in the philosophical sense	363

CHAP. II.

THE TRUTH OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION.

The genuineness of the Scriptures proves the truth of the facts contained in them	367
The genuineness of the Scriptures proves their divine authority	370
The truth of the principal facts contained in the Scriptures proves their divine authority	371
Three different suppositions, which may be made concerning the divine inspiration of the Scriptures	ib.
The manner in which the Scriptures have been handed down from age to age, proves both their genuineness and truth	374
The great importance of the Scriptures proves their genuineness and truth	375
The language, style, and manner of writing used in the Scriptures, prove their genuineness	382
The great number of particular circumstances of time, place, persons, &c. mentioned in the Scriptures, prove both their genuineness and truth	383
The agreement of the Scriptures with history, natural and civil, is a proof of their genuineness and truth	387
The agreement of the books of the Old and New Testaments with themselves and each other, is an argument both of their genuineness and truth	398
The unity of design, which appears in the dispensations recorded in the Scriptures, is an argument not only of their truth and genuineness, but also of their divine authority	401
Divine communications, miracles, and prophecies, are agreeable to natural religion, and seem even necessary in the infancy of the world	407
The objections made against the miracles recorded in the Scriptures, from their being contrary to the course of nature, is of little or no force	410
The historical evidences for the genuineness, truth, and divine authority of the Scriptures, do not grow less from age to age, but rather increase	415
The prophecies delivered in the Scriptures prove their divine authority	416
The obscurity of the prophecies does not invalidate this proof	420
The double uses and applications of the types and prophecies are no objection to the evidences deducible from them, but rather a confirmation of these evidences	422
The application of the types and prophecies of the Old Testament, by the writers of the New, does not weaken the authority of these writers, but rather confirms it	423
The moral characters of Christ, the prophets, and apostles, prove the truth and divine authority of the Scriptures	426
The excellence of the doctrines contained in the Scriptures is an evidence of their divine authority	429
The many advantages which have accrued to the world from the Patriarchal, Judaical, and Christian revelations, prove the divine authority of the Scriptures	431
The wonderful nature and superior excellence, of the attempt made by Christ and his apostles, are evidences of their divine authority	433
The manner in which the love of God, and of our neighbour, is taught and inculcated in the Scriptures, is an evidence of their divine authority	ib.
The doctrine of the necessary subserviency of pain to pleasure, unfolded in the Scriptures, is an evidence of their divine authority	434
The mutual instrumentality of beings to each other's happiness and misery, unfolded in the Scriptures, is an argument of their divine authority	435
The divine authority of the Scriptures may be inferred from the superior wisdom of the Jewish laws, considered in a political light, and from the exquisite workmanship shewn in the tabernacle and temple	436
The want of universality in the publication of revealed religion, is no objection to it; but, on the contrary, the time and manner in which the Scriptures were written, and delivered to the world, are arguments for their divine authority	437
The exclusion of all great degrees of enthusiasm and imposture from the characters of Christ, the prophets and apostles, proves their divine authority	439
The reception which Christ, his forerunners and followers, with their doctrines, have met with in all ages, is an argument of their divine authority	440
The reception which false religions have met with in the world, are arguments of the truth of the Christian	441

CHAP. III.

THE RULE OF LIFE.

The Rule of Life, as deducible from the Practice and Opinions of Mankind.

The practice of mankind affords some direction in respect of the rule of life	445
The opinions of mankind afford a better direction in respect of the rule of life, than their practice	446
The rule of life drawn from the practice and opinions of mankind is favourable to the cause of virtue	447
This rule corrects and improves itself perpetually	452

The Regard due to the Pleasures and Pains of Sensation, in forming the Rule of Life.

The pleasures of sensation ought not to be made a primary pursuit	454
The pursuit of sensible pleasure ought to be regulated by the precepts of piety, benevolence, and the moral sense	457
Practical rules concerning diet	459
Practical rules concerning the commerce between the sexes	465
Practical rules concerning the hardships, pains, and uneasinesses, which occur in the daily intercourses of life	471

The Regard due to the Pleasures and Pains of Imagination in forming the Rule of Life.

The pleasures of imagination ought not to be made a primary pursuit	473
The pursuit of the pleasures of imagination ought to be regulated by the precepts of benevolence, piety, and the moral sense	475
Practical rules concerning the elegancies and amusements of life	477
Practical rules concerning mirth, wit, and humour	479
Practical rules concerning the polite arts, and particularly of painting, music, and poetry	480
Practical rules concerning the pursuit of science	481
Practical rules concerning the ignorance, difficulties, and perplexities in which we find ourselves involved	482

The Regard due to the Pleasures of Honour, and the Pains of Shame, in forming the Rule of Life.

The pleasures of honour ought not to be made a primary pursuit	483
The pleasures of honour may be obtained in their greatest degree, and highest perfection, by paying a strict regard to the precepts of benevolence, piety, and the moral sense	485
Practical observations on the nature of humility, and the methods of attaining it	487

The Regard due to the Pleasures and Pains of Self-interest in forming the Rule of Life.

The pleasures of self-interest ought not to be made a primary pursuit	491
A strict regard to the precepts of benevolence, piety, and the moral sense, favours even gross self-interest, and is the only method by which the refined and rational can be secured	496
Practical observations on self-interest and self-annihilation	497

The Regard due to the Pleasures and Pains of Sympathy, in forming the Rule of Life.

The pleasures of sympathy improve those of sensation, imagination, ambition, and self-interest; and unite with those of theopathy and the moral sense: they are self-consistent, and admit of an unlimited extent; and consequently they may be our primary pursuit	498
Practical rules for augmenting the benevolent affections, and suppressing the malevolent ones	503
Practical rules for the conduct of men towards each other in society	504
The duties arising from the principal relations of life	509

Section VII.

The Regard due to the Pleasures and Pains of Theopathy, in forming the Rule of Life.

The love of God regulates, improves, and perfects all the other parts of our nature, and affords a pleasure superior, in kind and degree, to all the rest; and therefore is our primary pursuit and ultimate end	514
Practical rules concerning the theopathetic affections, faith, fear, gratitude, hope, trust, resignation, and love	518
Practical rules concerning the manner of expressing the theopathetic affections by prayer, and other religious exercises	528

Section VIII.

The Regard due to the Pleasures and Pains of the Moral Sense, in forming the Rule of Life.

The moral sense ought to be made the immediate guide of our actions on all sudden emergencies	531
Practical rules for the regulation and improvement of the moral sense	532
General corollaries to the seven last Sections	533

Section IX.

The Rule of Faith.

An inquiry how far faith in natural and revealed religion, also in the particular tenets of christian churches, is necessary for the purification and perfection of our natures

537

CHAP. IV.

THE EXPECTATIONS OF MANKIND, HERE AND HEREAFTER, IN CONSEQUENCE OF THEIR OBSERVANCE OR VIOLATION OF THE RULE OF LIFE.

The Expectation of Individuals in the present Life.

It is probable, that most or all men receive more happiness than misery in their passage through the present life	545
The balance cannot be much in favour even of the most happy, during the present life	546
Virtue has always the fairest prospect even in this life, and vice is always exposed to the greatest hazards	547
And yet it does not seem at all probable, that happiness is exactly proportioned to virtue in the present life	548

The Expectation of Bodies Politic, the Jews in particular, and the World in general, during the present State of the Earth.

It is probable, that all the present civil governments will be overturned	549
It is probable, that the present forms of church government will be dissolved	551
It is probable, that the Jews will be restored to Palestine	553
The Christian religion will be preached to, and received by, all nations	555
It is not probable that there will be any pure or complete happiness before the destruction of this world by fire	557

A future State after the Expiration of this Life.

It is probable, from the mere light of nature, that there will be a future state	558
The Christian revelation gives us an absolute assurance of a future state	565
The rewards and punishments of a future life will far exceed the happiness and misery of this, both in degree and duration	566
It is probable, that the future happiness of the good will be of a spiritual nature; but the future misery of the wicked may be both corporeal and mental	568
It seems probable, that the soul may remain in a state of inactivity, though perhaps not of insensibility, from death to the resurrection	571

The Terms of Salvation.

It follows from the foregoing theory of our intellectual pleasures and pains, as well as from other ways of considering them, that the bulk of mankind are not qualified for pure, unmixed happiness	572
It follows from the declarations of the Scriptures, that the bulk of mankind are not qualified for the mansions of the blessed	573
A practical application of this doctrine to the real circumstances of mankind	574