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A N A 1 to disperse. A bomb was thrown, several policemen being killed and a number wounded. For this crime eight men were tried in one panel and condemned, seven Spies, Parsons, Engel, Fischer, Fielden, Schwab, and Ling—to death, and one—Neebe—to imprisonment for fifteen years. The sentences on Fielden and Schwab were commuted by Governor Oglesby to imprisonment for life, on the recommendation of the presiding judge and the prosecuting attorney. Ling committed suicide in jail, and Spies, Parsons, Engel, and Fischer were hanged, llth November 1887. On 26th June 1893 an unconditional pardon was granted the survivors, Fielden, Schwab, and Neebe, by Governor Altgeld. The reasons for the pardon were stated by the governor to be that, upon an examination of the records, he found that the jury had not been drawn in the usual manner, but by a special bailiff, who made his own selection, and had summoned a “ prejudiced jury” ; that the “state had never discovered who it was that threw the bomb which killed the policemen, and the evidence does not show any connexion whatever between the defendants and the man who did throw it,” ... or that this man “ ever heard or read a word coming from the defendants, and consequently fails to show that he acted on any advice given by them.” Judge Gary, the judge at the trial, published a defence of its procedure in the Century Magazine, vol. xxiii. p. 803. There have been a number of outbreaks in recent years attributed to the propaganda of reform by revolution, like those in Spain and France in 1892, in which Pavachol was a prominent figure. In 1893, a bomb was exploded in the French Chamber of Deputies by Vaillant. The spirit of these men is well illustrated by the reply which Yaillant made to the judge who reproached him for
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endangering the lives of innocent men and women: “There can be no innocent bourgeois.” In 1894 there was an explosion in a Parisian cafe, and another in a theatre at Barcelona. For the latter outrage six men were executed. President Carnot of the French Republic was assassinated by an Italian at Lyons in the same year. The Empress Elizabeth of Austria was assassinated in September 1898. These events led to the. passage by the United States Legislature of a law, in 1894, to keep out foreign anarchists, and to deport any who might be found in the country, and also to the assemblage of an international conference in Rome, in 1898, to agree upon some plan for dealing with these revolutionists. It was proposed that their offences should no longer be classed as political, but as common-law crimes, and be made subject to extradition. The suppression of the revolutionary press and the international co-operation of the police were also suggested. The results of the conference were not, however, published; and the question of how to deal with the campaign against society fell for a while into abeyance. More recently the attempt made by the youth Sipido on the (then) Prince of Wales at Brussels in 1900 recalled attention to the subject. The acquittal of Sipido, and the failure of the Belgian Government to see that justice was done in an affair of such international impoit ance, excited considerable feeling in England, and was the occasion of a strongly-worded note from the British to the Belgian Government. The murder of King Humbert, of Italy in July 1900 renewed the outcry against. Italian anarchists. But even greater horror and indignation were excited by the assassination of President M‘Kmley bv Czolgoscz on 6th September 1901, at Buffalo, U.S.A. (h.d.l.*)
ANATOMY. Modern Aspects and Methods. THE acceptance of the doctrine of evolution has wrought 1 cardinal changes in the position of anatomy as a branch of biology. So long as differing species of animals were believed to be genetically independent, resemblances in structure could only be interpreted upon some transcendental hypothesis, and no intelligible explanation coMd be given of the changes in form and arrangement which take place in almost every part during the process of embryonic development, or of such common phenomena as those of variation. The doctrine of community of descent has made possible a philosophic theory of morphology, which unifies and renders intelligible the otherwise incoherent facts of descriptive anatomy, and has opened up new fields of research. , , The bent of the new Comparative Anatomy has been mainly genealogical. Assuming that, resemblances m structure are due to community of descent, its Phyloprogress-has been stimulated by the endeaour en c £en f . to determine the phyla or genealogical trees of of eacies. f the basis of a comparison orms on
the sum-total of resemblances in structure and organization. For this purpose the elaboration of a complete anatomical ontology is necessary. The field of research in this direction has been widely cultivated by Professor Gegenbaur and his school. The method of embryology is useful as a supplement and check to the teachings of ontology. Every animal begins existence as an egg, a single cell, from which is derived by a gradual, process of growth and differentiation the complete organic structure of the adult state. As the eggs of most metazoan animals are constructed on the same plan, and as with each suc-
cessive stage of development the range of resemblance in detail becomes more and more restricted, it. has been supposed that the embryology of each individual is a recapitulation of the stages of the ontology of its ancestral forms. This serves as an excellent working hypothesis foi purposes of classification. . Anthropotomy, in Great Britain at least, has hitherto profited less than any other branch of anatomy by the development of a philosophical morphology. The. majority of those who study the subject are interested m it only so far as it is a handmaid to practical medicine and surgery, and its teaching is chiefly conducted by those who regard it from the professional standpoint, and by whom, natuial y, the morphological aspect is subordinated to the technical. Attempts to remodel the nomenclature so as to [nterbring human and comparative anatomy into national line have not hitherto been encouraged by those "^acIa’ authorities who exercise dominant influence in directing anatomical examinations. The spirit of the age will doubtless in time prove too strong for this obscurantism. On the Continent an effort has been made, especially by German teachers, to frame a uniform system of anatomical nomenclature. The names adopted by the Congress at Basel are largely those used by the school of Gegenbaur, and are not in all respects satisfactory. In England and France this nomenclature has been adopted by a few teachers only, and is used in a very few text-books. (For the best illustrated exposition ot the Basel nomenclature, see Spalteholz, Hand Atlas der Anatomic, Leipzig, 1896.) The importance of the study of the .human type as a ground-work for morphological investigation has been admitted by all who are competent to judge, ihe body ot
